GIFT  OF 
U.C.  Lambda  Chapter 

Phi  Delta  Kappa 


feOUCATJON  Dfc.PT. 


l.JK\\<^k:L   LJoKAKY    Oh    tUl. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFC 
m&HKELEY,  CAUFOHi^ 


4 


SCHOOL   HISTORY 


OF 


ENGLAND. 


By    Ao    B.    BERAED, 


AUTHOR   OF  "SCHOOL   HISTORY   OF  THE   I7NITBD   STATES. 


KEW  YORK: 
A      S„    BARNES    AND     BURR, 

51    AND    58    JOHN    STREET. 

SOLD   BT   BOOKSELLERS  GENERALLY  THBOXTGHOXTT  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

1862. 


/V 


;  •/:  fy :: :    ;  /*.^^^.,<c(l-«^'''^-t-«^ 


Entered,-  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1861 

By  a.  B.  BERARD, 

la  tte  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  Southern  District  of  New  York . 


MEAES  &  DUSENBERT,  ELECTKOIYPEES, 
PHILADELPHIA. 


PREFACE. 


The  design  of  the  volume  now  ofiFered  to  the  kindly  consideratiop 
of  Parents  and  Teachers,  is,  to  combine  a  history  of  the  social  life 
of  the  English  people,  with  that  of  the  civil  and  military  trans- 
actions of  the  realm. 

A  nation's  religion,  literature,  science,  art,  and  commerce,  are 
certainly  as  important  topics  in  the  consideration  of  its  history, 
as  those  connected  with  military  operations  and  civil  government. 

It  is  hoped,  therefore,  that  the  attention  given  to  both  these 
departments,  may  win  for  the  accompanying  volume,  a  place  among 
the  useful  books  written  for  the  instruction  of  the  young. 

A  visit  to  England  during  the  preparation  of  the  volume,  gave 
at  least  such  increased  interest  in  the  subject  of  the  work,  as  may 
add  to  its  value,  especially  in  the  eyes  of  those  who  prize  a  book 
written  con  amore. 

In  the  brief  account  of  the  war  in  the  Crimea,  I  would  acknow- 
ledge most  gratefully  the  assistance  of  a  distinguished  officer  of 
engineers,  whose  information,  gained  by  personal  observation  of 
the  military  operations  in  that  country,  is  of  peculiar  value. 

A.  B.  B. 

Wmt  Point,  April,  1861. 

(8) 

79()4«7 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 

ANCIENT  BRITAIN. 

—420. 
OHAPTBR  PAGX 

I. — THE  LAND  AND  ITS  INHABITANTS.— WARFARE— RELIGION— EDUCATION      .      9-13 
n.— THE   ROMAN  CONQUEST.- JULIUS    C.SSAR— CARACTACU8— BOADICEA— EX 
TENT  OF  THE  CONQUEST — DEPARTURE  OF  THE  ROMANS — THE  BENEFITS 
CONFERRED  UPON  BSITAIN  BY  THEIR  OCCUPATION  ....  13-19 

PART  II. 
SAXON  HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND. 

420—1066. 
m.— THE  SAXON  INVASION. — CHARACTER  OF  THE  INVADERS— REPULSE  OP  THE 
PICT8  AND  SCOTS— FOUNDATION   OF  THE  HEPTARCHY— CONVERSION  TO 
CHRISTIANITY— ENGLAND  UNDER  ONE  SOVEREIGN— THE  DANES     .  .  20-26 

IV. — KING   ALFRED   THE    GREAT. — HIS     EARLY    DAYS — CONFLICTS    WITH    THE 

DANES — THE  BENEFICENT  RULER  ....  .  .  26-30 

V. — ENGLAND  UNDER  THE  DANES.— THE  SUCCl  S80R8  OF  ALFRED — ETHELRED 

THE  UNREADY— THE  DANE  KINGS— EDWARD  THE  CONFESSOR  .  31-38 

VI.— THE  LAST  OF  THE  SAXON  KINGS.- WILLIAM  THE   NORMAN  AND  HIS  INVA- 
SION—HAROLD'S ENEMIES — BATTLE  OF  HASTINGS  ....  38-42 

VII.— CONDITION  OF  ENGLAND  UNDER  THE  SAXONS.— RELIGION— UTERATURE— 
GOVERNMENT — MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS — AMUSEMENTS— LONDON  IN 
8AX0N  TIMES 43-49 

PART  III. 

THE  NORMAN  CONQUEST. 

1066—1100. 

VIII.— WILLIAM  THE  CONQUEROR. — LAST   STRUGGLES  OF  THE  SAXONS— NORMAN 

ASCENDANCY — CLOSE  OF  THE  CONQUEROR'S  LIFE 50-^7 

IX. — WILLIAM    RUFU8.— THE    CROWN  DISPUTED— TREATJIENT    OF   THE   SAXON 

RACE — THE  kino's  DEATH 57-69 

X. — CHANGES    EFFECTED    BT    THE    CONQUEST. — THE    FEUDAL    SYSTEM — NEW 

FORMT— DOOMSDAY  BOOK— CRC8ADM 59-64 

(4) 


CONTENTS.  ▼ 

PART  IV.    ~ 

ENGLAND  DURING  THE  TWELFTH  CENTURY. 

1100—1199. 
CHAPTSR  PASS 

XI.— HENRT  I. — BTEPHEN— THE  BROTHER'S  WAR— DOMESTIC  SORROW- 
EFFORTS    TO    SECURE    THE    SUCCESSION    TO   MATILDA— SURNAMES — 

CIVIL  WAR 66-69 

XII.— HENRT   n.— EXTENT    OF    HIS    DOMINIONS— HIS    QUARRELS   WITH    THE 

CHURCH — THOMAS  A  BECKET 69-76 

XIII.— HENRY  n. — CONQUEST  OF  IRELAND — ^WARS  IN  FRANCE  .  .  .        77-80 

XIV.— RICHARD    I.— THE    CRUSADING    KING— WARS    IN    FRANCE — RICHARD'S 

DEATH— WILLIAM  LONGBEARD 80-86 

XV. — CONDITION  OF  ENGLAND  IN  THE  TWELFTH  CENTURY.— FEUDAL  CASTLES — 
CHIVALRY  AND  ITS  USAGES — KNIGHTHOOD — ARMOR — TOURNAKENTB 
— FEASTS-DRESS— LEARNING — ROBIN  HOOD 86-94 


PART  V. 
ENGLAND  DURING  THE  THIRTEENTH  CENTURY. 

1199—1307. 

XVI.— ESQ  JOHN.— PROVISIONS  OF  MAGNA  CHARTA— JOHN'S  WARS  WITH  HI8 
NEPHEW — QUARRELS  WITH  THE  POPE— THE  GREAT  CHARTER  OB- 
TAINED— CIVIL  STRIFE 95-101 

XVII. — HENRY    III. — EARL     PEMBROKE— ROYAL     FAVORITES — WARS     OP     THB 

BARONS     102-104 

XVm.— EDWARD  I.— RETURN   FROM  THE   HOLY  LAND — CONQUEST  OF  WALES — 

INVASION  OF  SCOTLAND 105-110 

XIX. — CONDITION  OK  ENGLAND  IN  THE   THIRTEENTH   CENTURY. — REUGIOK— 

INDUSTRY— MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS— LEARNING  AND  LEARNKO  KXK  111-118 

PART  VI. 

ENGLAND  DURING  TH%FOURTEENTH  CENTURY. 

1307—1399. 

XX.— EDWARD    II.— GAVE8T0N— BANNOCKBURN — CTVIL    DISSENSIONS— DIPO- 

8ITI0N  OF  THE  KING 119-12S 

XXI. — EDWARD  ni. — OVERTHROW  OF  MORTIMER — CLAIM  TO  THE  FRENCH 
CROWN — WARS  IN   FRANCE — CRECY — SIEGE  OP   CALAIS — BATTLE  OF 

POICTIERS 123-131 

XXII.— RICHARD  II.— WAT  TYLER'S  INSURRECTION— MISGOVERNMENT—BOLING- 

BROKE  USURPS  THE  CROWN 132-136 

XXIII. — CONDITION  OF  ENGLAND  IN  THE  FOURTEENTH  CENTURY. — REUGION — 
LEARNING — LANGUAGE — LAW-SCHOOLS—INDUSTRY— MANNERS  AND 
CUSTOMS  . 136-144 


PART  VII. 

ENGLAND  DURING  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. 
1399—1509. 
XXIV.— HENRY    rv.— CONSPIRACIES— REBELUON— PRINCE    HENRT— A     ROTAL 

CAPTIVE 146-148 


VI  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTEB  FAQS 

xxv.— hinrt  v.— ■wars  ix  france— agincotjrt— treaty  of  tr0te8 — 

henrt's  death       .  148-152 

xxvi.— henry  vi.— the  "war  in  france— joan  of  arc— king's  marriage 

and  its  conskquences— wars  of  the  roses         ....  162-158 
xxvii. — edward  iv. — battle  of  towton — king's  marriage — fatal  conse- 
quences— triumph  of  lancastrians — their  final  overthrow — 

the  king's  revenge 158-162 

xxvni.— edward  v.— richard  iii.— richard's  machinations — the  princes 
in  the  tower — their  uncle  becomes  king — a  rival  claimant — 
bosworth  field 163-165 

xxix. — henry  vii. — treatment  op  the  house  of  york — impostors  and 

,  their  fate— avarice  of  the  king— new  world  discovered      .  165-170 
xxx. — condition  of  england  in  the  fifteenth  century. — religion — 
learning  —  printing  —agriculture— architecture— domestic 
comfort— great  merchants— manners  and  customs— condition 
of  the  people 170-180 

PART    VIII. 

ENGLAND  DURING  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY 
1509— 1C03. 

XXXI.— HENRY  VIII.— WARS— WOLSEY— RELATIONS  WITH  FOREIGN  PRINCES — 

THE  king's  DIVORCE — THE  CARDINAL'S  OVERTHROW  .  .  .   181-188 

XXXII. — HENRY  vni. — THE  UPRIGHT  CHANCELLOR — OVERTHROW  OP  PAPAL 
POWER— ANNE    BOLEYN— REFORMATION— SCOTLAND — FRANCE— THE 

HOWARDS 189-196 

XXXm. — ^EDWARD     VI.— THE     PROTECTOR— INTRIGUES— REFORMATION— SOMER- 
SET'S DOWNFALL — NORTHUMBERLAND'S  SCHEMES       ....  197-201 
XXXIV. — MARY. — LADY  JANE  GREY — CHARACTER  OF  THE  QUEEN — RESTORATION 
OP  THE  OLD  REUOION — THE  QUEEN'S  MARRIAGE — EVIL  RESULTS — 

PROTESTANT  MARTYRS— LOSS  OF  CALAIS 201-206 

XXXV.— ELIZABETH.— ACCESSION— POPULARITY— THE  PROTESTANT  REUGION — 

MARY  OF  SCOTLAND  .  .  .  • 206-214 

XXXVI.— ELIZABETH.— THE   INVINCIBLE  A^KADA-LEICESTER— ESSEX  AND  HIS 

ENEMIES — THE  QUEEN'S  DEATH 214-220 

XXXVII.— CONDITION  OF  ENGLAND  IN  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.— THE  REFORMA- 
TION— ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  ENGLISH  CHURCH — DISSENTERS  •   220-224 
XXXVni. — CONDITION  OF  ENGLAND  IN  THE   SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.— LEARNING — 

PAINTING — ARCHITECTURE — COMMERCE — MANUFACTURES  .  .  225-231 

XXXIX. — CONDITION  OF  ENGLAND  IN  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY— AGRICULTURE- 
MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS — AMUSEMENTS — CONDITION  OF  LOWER 
CLASSES— PARLUMENT— COURTS     OF     LAW— ELIZABETH     AND     HER 

PEOPLE    231-238 

PART  IX. 
ENGLAND  DURING  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY. 

1603—1702. 

XL.— JAMES  I.  — CONSPIRACIES  — GUNPOWDER  PLOT  —  PREROGATIVE  —  THE 

king's  TASTES — CECIL — BACON— LADY  ARABELLA  STUART  .  .  239-244 

XLI.— JAMES  I.— THE  king's  FAVORITE— THE  PRINCESS  ELIZABETH— EPISCO- 
PACY IN  SCOTLAND— SIR  WALTER  RALEIGH— MATRIMONIAL  NEGOTIA- 
TIOKB ,        .        .        .246-249 


CONTENDS.  Vll 

CBxrsm  PAO« 

XLII.--CHARI.K8  I.— PARUAMENT— THB  KING'S  ADVISERS— BXJCKINaHAM— 
LAUD — STRAFFORD— THE  KING'S  THIRD  PARLIAMENT — CROMWELL — 
SHIP-MONEY — EPISCOPACY  IN  SCOTLAND — THE  KING'S  DIFFICULTIES — 
LONG  PARLIAMENT — STRAFFORD'S  TRIAL — LAUD — IRELAND        .  .   249-256 

XLIII. — CHARLES  I.— SEIZURE  OF  THE  FIVE  MEMBERS — THE  KING'S  FORCES — 
THE  PARLIAMENT'S  ARMY— CIVIL  WAR— RELIGIOUS  PARTIES— THE 
KING  AND  THE  SCOTS— CROMWELL— THE  KING'S  DOWNFALL        .  .   257-265 

XLIV.— ENGLAND  A  COMMONWEALTH.-CHANQES— IRELAND — PRINCE  CHARLES 

— THE  DUTCH  WAR 266-270 

XLV. — CROlrfWELL  AS  LORD  PROTECTOR.— THE  RULER  AND  HIS  PARLIAMENT— 
THE   PROTECTORSHIP — FOREIGN   POI^Y — THE   PURITAN  COURT — DO- 
MESTIC AFFLICTION — THE  PROTECTOR'S  DEATH — RICHARD  CROMWELL 
— RESTORATION  OF  MONARCHY  ....  .  .  271-274 

XLTI.— CHARLES  II.— ACTS  OF  PARLIAMENT — THE  REGICIDES— INGRATITUDE 
OF  THE   KING — SCOTLAND — FOREIGN  RELATIONS — PLOTS  AND   THEIR 

CONSEQUENCES  274-280 

XL Vn.— JAMES  II.— HIS  DECLARATIONS— HIS  CONDUCT— ARGYLE— MONMOUTH— 

CRUELTIES — JEFFRIES 280-283 

XLVIIL— JAMES   11— EFFORTS   TO  RESTORE   ROMANISM— THE    NATION'S  RESIST- 

A|rCE — REVOLUTION — WILLIAM  OF  ORANGE  .....    283-288 

XLIX.— WILLIAM  III.— SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  CROWN— CHARACTER  OF  THE  KING 
— RESISTANCE  IN  SCOTLAND — IN  IRELAND — SIEGE  OF  LONDONDERRY — 

WILLIAM'S  VICTORIES ,         .   288-293 

L. — WILLIAM  III. — GLENCOE— FOREIGN  WARS— DEATH  OF  THE  QUEEN— HER 
CHARACTER— WILLIAM  ABROAD — ACT   OF   SUCCESSION— LOUIS  XIV. — 

WILLIAM'S  DEATH  293-297 

LI. — CONDITION  OF  ENGLAND  IN  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.— RELIGION— 
THE  DRAMA — POETS — MILTON — SCIENCE — ROYAL  OBSERVATORY — 
GREENWICH  HOSPITAL — ART — ARCHITECTURE — NEWSPAPERS — POST- 
OFFICES   .  297-301 

LII.— CONDITION  OP  ENGLAND  IN  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY. — ROADS — 
LONDON — COMMERCE — MANUFACTURES — BANK  OF  ENGLAND — STYLE 
OF  LIVING — CLASSES  OP  SOCIETY— REVENUE — WHIG  AND  TORY — 
NATIONAL  DEBT 805-312 


PART  X. 

ENGLAND  DURING  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

1702—1800. 

LIII. — ANNE — GEORGE  I. — FOREIGN  WARS — POLITICAL  PARTIES — UNION — 
LITERATURE— HOUSE  OF  HANOVER— THE  PRETENDER— SEPTENNIAL 
BILL— SOUTH  SEA  SCHEME 313-317 

IIV. — GEORGE  II.— WALPOLE'S  ADMINISTRATION— FOREIGN  WARS — THE  YOUNG 

PRETENDER — ENGLAND  AND  THE  SEVEN  YEARS'  WAR           .           .           .  317-322 
LV.— GEORGE   II.— THE    ENGLISH   IN    INDIA— THEIR   COLONIES — THE   GREAT 
MOGUL — FRENCH   RIVALS — CLIVE — THE  BLACK  HOLE  OF  CALCUTTA — 
PLASSEY — SUBSEQUENT  VICTORIES 322-327 

LVI.— GEORGE  III.— CHARACTER  OF  THE  SOVEREIGNS— WILLIAM  PITT— WAR 
WITH  SPAIN— PROSECUTION  OP  WILKSS— TAXATION  OP  AMERICA — 
WAR  IN  CONSEQUENCE — RESULT  OF  THE  CONTEST — SUGE  OF  QIB- 
■ALTAB 827-336 


Vin  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTZK  PAOa 

LVII.— THI  ENGLISH  m  INDIA.— BRITISH  CONQUESTS — THl  RCIE  OP  THB  EAST 
INDIA  COMPANT— WARREN  HASTINGS— HIS  CAREER  IN  INDIA— HIS 
IMPEACHMENT  AND   TRIAL   IN   ENGLAND— INDIA  AT  THE  CLOSE  OF 

THIS  PERIOD 336-341 

LVni. — GEORGE  III.— THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION— ITS  EFFECT  UPON  ENGLAND — 
WAR— VICTORIES— MUTINY  IN  THE   FLEET— CAMPERDOWN— BATTLE 

OF  THE  NILE— ACRE— IRELAND — THE  UNION 342-360 

LIX. — CONDITION  OF  ENGLAND  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTUET. — EEUGION— 

LITERATURE— DISTINGUISHED  WRITERS 351-S59 

tiX. — CONDITION  OF  ENGLAND  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. — THE  MINIS- 
TRY— OLD  AND  NEW  S'<([,E— ARCHITECTURE — PAINTING— MUSIC- 
MANUFACTURES — TRAVELLING  —  AGRICULTURE  —  COMMERCE— MAN- 
NERS AND  CUSTOMS— AMUSEMENTS 859-369 

PART  XI. 

ENGLAND  DURING  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

1800—1860. 
LXI.— GEORGE     m.— THE     ARMED     NEUTRALITY— TRAFALQAR—PENINSULAB 

WAR— WATERLOO — WAR  WITH  AMERICA— BARBARY  PIRATES*   .          .  370-380 
liXII. — GEORGE  IV.— TRIAL  OP  THE  QUEEN— CATHOLIC   EMANCIPATION— PAR- 
LIAMENTARY REFORM         381-386 

LXIII.— WILLIAM  IV.— PARUAMENTARY  REFORM— MUNICIPAL  REFORM— ABOU- 
TION   OF  THE  SLAVE  TRADE— SLAVERY  EMANCIPATION   BILL— POOR 

LAWS— CRIMINAL  LAW .  38T-S92 

LXIV.— QUEEN  VICTORIA.— THE  QUEEN— CHARTISTS— CORN  LAW— REPEAL  AGI- 
TATION-FATHER MATHEW— MAYNOOTH  COLLEGE— FAMINE—INSUR- 
RECTION    .        .  393-400 

LXV.— VICTORIA.— THE  CHARTIST  REBELLION— FOREIGN  RELATIONS— TROUBLES 

IN  TURKEY— OTLITARY  OPERATIONS 401-406 

LXVI.— VICTORIA.— ENGLISH  TROOPS  IN  THE  CRIMEA— ALMA— SIEGE  OF  SEBAS- 

TOPOL— FLORENCE  NIGHTINGALE         ...  ...  406-416 

LXVIL— ENGLAND  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.— BIBLE  SOCIETY— MISSIONARY 
EFFORT— BENEVOLENCE— LITERATURE— MATERIAL  PROGRESS — CRYS- 
TAL PALACE      .  ...  416-422 

PART  XII. 
COLONIAL. 
1801—1860. 
LXVm.— INDIA.— MAHRATTA  WARS— BURMESE   WARS— THE  AFGHAN  INVASION 

AND  DISASTER 423-432 

LXIX.— INDIA.— WAR  WITH  SINDE — GWAUOR— SIKH  CONFEDERACY— BURMESE 

WAR— ANNEXATION  OF  OUDE— THE  INDIAN  MUTINY            .          .          .  432-444 
LXX.— THE  ENGLISH  IN  CHINA. — EMBASSIES  TO  CHINA— COMMERCIAL  RELA- 
TIONS—W.\R  OF  1 842        445-448 

LXXI.— AUSTRAUA— NEW  ZEALAND— CAPE  COLONY  ......  449-452 

LXXII.— CANADA.— EARLY     HISTORY— POLITICAL     DISCONTENTS— REBELLION— 

SXTBSEQUENT  HISTORY— CONCLUSION 468-466 


HISTOEY    OF    ENG,1jMJD. 


PART  I. 

ANCIENT  BRITAIN. 
— A.  D.  420. 

From  Tan,  a  country,  and  Breit^  tin, 

The  name  of  Britain  came, 
And  only  as  the  Land  of  Tin^ 

Was  it  first  known  to  fame." 

Hannah  Townsend. 


CHAPTER   I. 

BRITAIN   BEFORE   THE   ROMAN   CONQUEST. 

In  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  somewhat  to  the  north-west  of  the 
mainland  of  Europe,  lies  the  island  of  Great  Britain.  It  is 
small  compared  with  the  other  natural  divisions  of  the  earth, 
and  yet  this  little  sea-girt  isle  is  the  centre  of  an  empire  so 
vast,  that  the  Englishman  may  proudly  repeat  the  boast  once 
uttered  by  the  Spaniard,  "  that  on  the  dominions  of  his  sove- 
reign the  sun  never  sets." 

We  know  but  little  about  this  island  in  very  early  times. 
The  first  inhabitants  of  whom  we  have  any  certain  knowledge 
were  of  the  Celtic  race,  and  were  in  a  rude  and  barbarous 
condition.  At  first,  their  island  was  called  Albion,  which 
means  "  The  White  Isle,"  but  afterwards  it  was  better  known 

(9) 


10  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

by  the  name  of  Britannia,  which  probably  meant  *^he  Land 
of  Tin."     In  the  days  when  old  Tyre  and  Sidon 

B.C. 1000.  ... 

were  in  all  their  glory,  their  mariners  made  bolder 
voyages  than  any  other  people.  Their  merchant  vessels  passed 
beyond  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  (for  so  the  ancients  named  the 
stiaits  of  Gibr.altar)  ,mto  the  stormy  Atlantic.  They  even 
went  to  Britaiii,  arid  traded  with  the  natives  for  lead  and  tin. 
The  iincietftS'  mfxed  tin' with  copper,  forming  a  metal  called 
brass,  but  which  in  truth,  was  more  properly  bronze.  Perhaps 
the  brazen  sea  and  vessels  "of  bright  brass,"  wrought  by 
Tyrian  workmen  for  King  Solomon's  Temple  at  Jerusalem, 
were  made  in  part  of  British  tin. 

Britain  was  a  cold  country,  and  the  people,  excepting  those 
on  the  southern  coast,  knew  very  little  about  cultivating  the 
ground.  They  lived  upon  the  milk  and  flesh  of  their  flocks 
and  herds,  or  upon  wild  fruits.  They  had  no  towns.  A 
Roman  geographer  says:  "the/oresAs  of  the  Britons  are  their 
cities  J  for  when  they  have  enclosed  a  very  large  space  with 
felled  trees,  they  build  within  it,  houses  for  themselves  and 
hovels  for  their  cattle."  Their  collection  of  wicker-work 
canister-shaped  cottages,  looked  very  much  like  the  Kraals  or 
Hottentot  villages  of  the  present  day. 

The  savage  Britons  in  the  middle  of  the  island  wore  very 
little  clothing.  They  tattooed  their  skins,  somewhat  in  the 
manner  of  the  South  Sea  islanders,  and  painted  them  with 
woad,  a  plant  which  yields  juice  of  a  blue  color.  The  more 
civilized  people  of  the  coast  wore  trousers  and  tunics  made 
of  chequered  cloth,  of  various  colors,  the  chief  and  favorite 
stripe  being  red.  This  dress  resembled  the  tartan-plaid  of 
the  Highlanders.  Over  their  garments  they  wore  chains, 
and  collars  or  necklaces  called  torques,  also  bracelets  and 
rings,  made  of  gold,  silver,  or  brass. 

These  ornaments,  as  also  their  dyed  cloth,  prove  that  the 
southern  Britons  knew  something  of  manufactures.  They 
made  metal  rings  which  they  used  for  money,  and  drinking- 
vessels  and  urns  of  coarse  earthenware. 

The  Britons  were  divided  into  numerous  petty  tribes,  and 


BRITAIN    BEFORE    THE    ROMAN    CONQUEST.  11 

as  these  were  nearly  always  fighting  with  each  other,  the  art  of 
war  therefore  was  better  known  among  them  than  any  other. 
Their  weapons  were  broadswords  and  spears.  At  the  end  of 
the  spear  was  sometimes  fixed  a  hollow  ball  filled  with  pieces 
of  metal,  which  making  a  rattling  noise  when  thrown,  would 
frighten  the  horses  of  an  enemy. 

The  most  formidable  instrument  of  war  among  the  Britons 
was  the  armed  chariot.  This  was  a  kind  of  car,  breast-high 
in  front  and  open  behind,  sometimes  of  rude  structure,  and 
sometimes  curiously  and  beautifully  wrought.  To  the  axle- 
trees  of  this  car,  were  fastened  scythes  and  hooks.  The 
chariot  was  drawn  by  horses  so  well  trained,  that  although 
urged  at  speed  over  the  roughest  country,  they  could  be 
stopped  instantly  at  the  voice  of  the  driver.  These  chariots, 
filled  with  warrior  Britons,  driven  into  the  midst  of  the  battle, 
cutting  and  tearing  all  before  them,  spread  the  greatest  terror 
through  the  ranks  of  their  enemies.  The  shields  of  the  Bri- 
tons were  made  of  basket-work  covered  with  hides  and  coated 
with  metal.  Their  little  walnut-shaped  boats,  called  coracles, 
were  also  made  of  twigs  of  osier  covered  with  skins. 

The  religion  of  the  Britons,  called  Druidism,  was  a  strange 
and  cruel  superstition.  They  worshipped  the  sun,  the  moon, 
the  serpent,  and  many  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  divinities. 
Their  priests  were  called  Druids,  and  besides  being  the  minis- 
ters of  religion,  they  were  the  judges  of  the  people,  and  the 
instructors  of  the  youth.  It  was  thought  that  the  greater  the 
dumber  of  the  Druids,  the  greater  would  be  the  prosperity  of 
the  country.  They  became,  consequently,  a  very  large  and 
powerful  class.  They  worshipped  in  groves  of  oak  watered  by 
fountains  or  running  streams,  which  were  regarded  as  sacred. 

Within  these  groves  a  circular  row  of  huge  upright  stones 
enclosed  an  open  space,  in  the  centre  of  which  was  the  Crom- 
lech, an  altar  consisting  of  a  large  flat  stone  laid  horizontally 
upon  others.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  Druidical  relics 
now  found  in  Great  Britain,  are  those  at  Stonehenge  in  Wilt- 
shire, and  the  curious  cromlech  known  as  Kits  Coty  House, 
near  Aylesford  in  Kent, 


12  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

The  Druids  taught  the  people  to  believe  that  God  loved  the 
oak  more  than  all  other  trees  of  the  wood,  and  that  whatever 
was  found  growing  upon  it  came  from  heaven.  Especially, 
they  looked  upon  as  sacred  the  mistletoe  plant,  whenever  its 
white  berries  were  found  clustering  upon  the  gnarled  branches 
of  this  monarch  of  the  wood.  The  great  festival  for  seeking 
the  mistletoe  of  the  oak  was  on  the  sixth  day  of  the  moon 
nearest  to  the  10th  of  March ; — the^  Druidical  New  Year's 
day.  When  they  were  so  fortunate  as  to  find  it,  a  procession 
with  great  pomp  and  ceremony  advanced  to  the  sacred  tree. 
A  white-robed  Druid  climbed  the  oak,  and  cut  with  a  gold 
knife  the  mistletoe  bough,  which  was  caught  as  it  fell  in  the 
white  garment  of  another  Druid.  Then  followed  festive  rites 
and  rejoicings.  In  the  sacrifices  of  the  Druids,  human  victims 
frequently  sufi'ered.  Instances  are  recorded  of  men  and  ani- 
mals thrown  together  into  a  huge  wicker-work  cage,  and 
burned  in  oiFerings  to  the  false  gods  of  this  cruel  religion. 

Besides  the  festival  above  mentioned,  there  were  three  other 
important  holydays  observed  by  the  Druids  : — May-Day,  Mid- 
summer Eve,  and  the  last  day  of  October.  In  their  worship 
of  the  Sun  and  Moon  was  included  the  adoration  of  fire.  On 
May-Day  Eve,  fires  were  lighted  and  sacrifices  ofi'ered  to  obtain 
a  bleSsing  on  the  newly-sown  fields.  And  when,  at  Mid- 
summer, the  fruits  of  the  earth  were  becoming  ready  for  the 
gathering,  and  on  All  Hallow's  Eve,  when  the  harvest  was 
ended,  night-fires  blazing  on  moor  and  mountain,  marked  the 
celebration  of  each  Druid  festival. 

The  religion  of  these  Pagans  has  long  since  passed  away,  and 
yet,  says  an  English  writer,  many  traces  of  their  old  superstition 
still  linger  in  the  popular  sports  and  pastimes  of  the  people. 
"  The  ceremonies  of  All  Hallowmas,  the  bonfires  of  May-Day 
and  Midsummer  Eve,  the  virtues  attributed  to  the  mistletoe, 
and  various  other  customs  of  the  village  and  country-side,  still 
speak  to  us  of  the  days  of  Druidism,  and  evince  that  the  impres- 
sion of  its  grim  ritual  has  not  been  wholly  obliterated  from  the 
popular  imagination  by  the  lapse  of  nearly  twenty  centuries." 

The  Druids  were  the  teachers  of  the  British  youth,  who 


BRITAIN    BEFORE   THE   ROMAN    CONQUEST.  13 

resorted  to  them  in  the  depths  of  the  dark  forests,  and  in  some 
instances  remained  under  a  course  of  instruction  for  twenty 
years.  One  part  of  their  education,  was  the  learning  of  a 
great  number  of  verses  by  heart,  for  they  were  not  allowed  to 
commit  their  knowledge  to  writing.  They  were  taught  astro- 
nomy, and  must  have  been  well  skilled  in  mechanics,  to  have 
reared  those  ponderous  stones  and  huge  cromlechs,  the  mere 
ruins  and  remains  of  which,  as  seen  at  Stonehenge  and  other 
places,  fill  us  with  astonishment.  They  were  taught  the  arts 
of  eloquence  and  poetry,  and  the  British  bards  remained  a 
favored  and  venerated  class  long  after  the  rest  of  their  country- 
men had  been  subdued  or  driven  from  the  land. 

Questions. — To  what  ancient  maritime  people  do  we  owe  our 
earliest  knowledge  of  Britain  ? — For  what  purpose  did  they  visit  the 
island  ? — Relate  what  is  told  of  the  dwellings  and  mode  of  life  of  the 
early  inhabitants. — Describe  the  war-chariots  of  the  Britons. 

Name  their  religion  and  the  objects  of  its  worship. — What  offices 
did  the  Druids  hold  besides  that  of  priests  ? — Describe  some  of  the 
Druidical  remains  still  found  in  Great  Britain. — What  tree  was  held 
in  veiteration  ? — Under  what  circumstances  was  the  mistletoe  re- 
garded as  sacred? — Describe  the  ceremony  of  gathering  it. — What  is 
told  of  the  sacrifices  of  this  religion  ? — Give  some  account  of  the 
education  of  British  youth. — What  arts  and  sciences  were  probably 
familiar  to  the  early  Britons  ? 


CHAPTER  II.  ' 

THE   ROMAN    CONQUEST 

Such  was  the  island  of  Britain  and  its  people,  about  half  a 
«  r.  I.K  century  before  the  birth  of  our  Saviour.  Then  the 
Romans  were  a  powerful  nation,  and  had  spread 
the  terror  of  their  arms  into  the  countries  lying  to  the  north 
of  Italy.  Julius  CaBsar,  one  of  their  most  famous  generals, 
had  subdued  the  Gauls  (a  people  occupying  the  country  now 
2 


14  HISTORY   OF    ENGLAND. 

called  France),  and  in  the  year  55  B.  c,  stood  upon  the  south- 
ern shore  of  the  English  Channel.  Looking  across  the  narrow 
straits  on  the  white  cliffs  of  Dover,  he  coveted  the  island  of 
Britain  for  conquest. 

Caesar  accused  the  Britons  of  having  helped  the  Gauls  to 
fight  against  him,  but  the  real  motive  of  his  intended  expedi- 
tion was  probably  a  desire  to  carry  his  arms  into  a  new 
country ;  and  in  the  summer,  or  early  autumn  of  the  above- 
mentioned  year,  Julius  Caesar,  with  a  fleet  of  eighty  vessels, 
and  an  army  of  twelve  thousand  men,  crossed  the  channel. 

On  approaching  the  cliffs  of  Dover,  the  Romans  saw  them 
covered  with  fierce  armed  Britons.  Caesar,  finding  it  impos- 
sible to  land  in  the  face  of  the  bold  rocks  and  bolder  enemy, 
gave  orders  to  sail  further  along  the  coast,  to  a  place  where 
the  shore  was  less  abrupt.  The  Britons,  with  their  war- 
chariots  and  horses,  flew  to  the  spot,  determined  if  possible  to 
prevent  his  landing  anywhere.  The  Roman  fleet  proceeded 
to  Deal,  and  there  Caesar  prepared  to  disembark  his  troops. 

The  water  was  very  deep,  and  the  fierce  enemy  was  on  the 
shore.  The  soldiers  began  to  falter,  when  a  standard  bfearer, 
holding  aloft  the  Roman  eagle,  and  praying  solemnly  to  the 
gods  of  his  country,  to  make  what  he  was  about  to  do  prove 
fortunate  for  Rome,  plunged  into  the  sea,  exclaiming,  *' Follow 
me,  my  fellow-soldiers,  unless  you  will  give  up  your  eagle  to 
the  enemy  !  I  at  least  will  do  my  duty  to  Caesar  and  to  the 
Republic  !"  This  deed  of  daring  emboldened  the  hesitating 
legions.  Leaping  into  the  sea,  they  effected  a  landing,  and 
after  a  sharp  conflict  drove  the  Britons  from  the  beach.  The 
latter  promised  submission,  but  a  severe  storm  having  destroyed 
the  Roman  ships,  the  Britons  soon  broke  into  rebellion.  They 
were  again  defeated,  and  sued  for  peace,  which  was  granted  to 
them  on  very  easy  terms ;  for  the  Romans,  having  repaired  a 
few  vessels  of  their  disabled  fleet,  were  anxious,  as  winter 
approached,  to  return  to  Gaul. 

^  The  next  year  Caesar  came  again  to  Britain.     The 

islanders  united  under  a  brave  chief,  Caswallon,  and 

did  their  utmost  to  defend  their  country.      Several  battle* 


THE   ROMAN  CONQUEST.  15 

were  fought,  but  the  Komans  did  not  penetrate  far,  and  before 
the  end  of  the  year  54  b.  c.  Caesar  again  made  peace  with  the 
islanders  and  returned  to  Graul,  having  discovered  rather  than 
conquered  Britain. 

After  the  departure  of  Julius  Caesar,  Britain  was  left  in 
peace;  that  is,  there  was  no  enemy  from  abroad,  but  the 
savage  tribes  were  at  war  very  often  among  themselves.     At 

length,  when  nearly  one  hundred  years  had  gone  by, 

in  the  year  of  our  Lord  43,  Roman  legions,  under 
Aulus  Plautius,  again  entered  Britain.  Many  battles  were 
fought,  and  the  Roman  emperor  himself  came  to  the  island  to 
make  sure  of  its  conquest;  yet  but  a  small  strip  of  country  was 
subdued,  and  even  this  was  overrun  by  hostile^  Britons  as 
soon  as  the  Roman  general  had  withdrawn  his  troops.  The 
Britons,  united  under  their  chief  Caradoc  or  Caractacus,  for 

nine  years  strove  to  drive  the  invaders  from  the 
A.D.  43  island.  Many  fierce  conflicts  occurred.  On  a  hill 
A.D.  53.   ^^  Shropshire,  still  linger  the  ruins  of  Caer-Caradoc, 

the  scene,  it  is  said,  of  Caractacus'  last  battle.  It 
was  bravely  contested,  but  the  numbers  and  discipline  of  the 
Romans  won  the  day.  Caractacus  was  treacherously  delivered 
into  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  and  carried  in  chains  to  the 
imperial  city.  There,  standing  before  Caesar's  judgment«seat, 
his  noble  spirit  shone  forth.  His  wife  and  children,  awed  by 
the  presence  of  the  emperor,  pleaded  for  mercy.  Caractacus 
rebuked  with  calm  dignity  the  proud  and  wicked  ambition 
of  his  conquerors.  "  Why,"  said  he,  looking  at  the  splendor 
which  surrounded  him,  "why  should  you,  possessed  of  so 
much  magnificence  at  home,  envy  me  an  humble  cottage  in 
Britain  V 

So  noble  a  spirit  on  the  part  of  a  captive  touched  the  heart 
of  the  Roman  emperor.  He  caused  his  chains,  as  well  as 
those  of  his  wife  and  children,  to  be  struck  off.  "Whether  his 
captors  ever  had  the  generosity  to  restore  Caractacus  to  his 
native  land,  historians  have  not  told  us.  It  is  said  that  the 
"  Claudia"  whom  St.  Paul  mentions  in  his  Second  Epistle  to 
Timothy,  was  a  daughter  of  Caracta<;us,  and  wae  converted  to 


16  HISTORY   or   ENGLAND. 

Christianity  through  the  influence  of  the  wife  of  the  Roman 
general,  Aulus  Plautius. 

The  contest  was  still  kept  up  in  Britain,  and  many  brave 
Roman  armies  were  sent  thither.  Between  the  years  59  and 
^„     „,     61  A.  D.  Suetonius  Paulinus  invaded  the  island  of 

59to61. 

Anglesey  (then  called  Mona),  which  was  the  chief 
resort  of  the  Druids,  and  a  place  of  refuge  for  the  British 
warriors.  The  Britons  did  their  utmost  to  defend  this  sacred 
island  :  armed  men  crowded  the  beach ;  women  with  streaming 
hair  and  flaming  torches  and  piercing  cries  ran  in  among  them, 
whilst  Druids  with  lifted  hands  and  frantic  gestures  uttered 
curses  on  the  daring  invaders.  It  was  all  in  vain.  The 
Romans,  in^  flat-bottomed  boats  crossed  the  Menai  Straits, 
burned  the  Druids  in  the  very  fires  they  had  kindled  for  their 
enemies,  and  cut  down  the  sacred  groves. 

While  Suetonius  was  engaged  in  this  expedition,  the  eastern 

Britons  had  risen  ao^ainst  the  Romans.     Boadicea, 

A.D.61.  ,^  ' 

Queen  of  the  Iceni,  one  of  these  tribes,  roused  by 
cruel  wrongs  which  had  been  done  to  herself  and  her  daughters, 
flew  to  arms.  Her  countrymen  flocked  to  her  standard.  Soon 
a  Roman  colony  was  laid  in  ashes,  and  London  (city  of  ships), 
then  a  small  but  prosperous  trading  town,  was  plundered  and 
its  iahabitants  put  to  death.  Other  colonies  were  attacked, 
and  seventy  thousand  victims  fell  a  sacrifice  to  British  ven- 
geance. Suetonius,  at  the  first  intelligence  of  this  rising, 
hurried  from  the  west,  and  soon  Queen  Boadicea  met  her  foes 
in  battle.  Mounted  in  her  war-chariot,  her  long  yellow  hair 
streaming  in  the  wind,  she  exhorted  her  followers  to  avenge 
her  wrongs  and  those  of  their  country.  But  her  efforts  and 
her  heroism  were  of  no  avail.  The  Britons  were  defeated, 
and  their  unhappy  queen  put  an  end  to  her  life  by  swallowing 
poison. 

From  A.D.  78   to  a.  D.  84  the  Roman  ereneral 

tS  &  T9» 

Agricola  commanded  in  Britain.  He  taught  the 
people  many  of  the  arts  of  civilization ;  induced  them  to  for- 
sake their  rude  huts  and  build  comfortable  houses,  and  taught 
their  youth  the  language  of  Rome.     He  carried  the  Roman 


THE   ROMAN    CONQUEST.  17 

arms  further  north  than  any  other  general  had  done,  display- 
ing the  victorious  eagle  at  the  foot  of  the  Grampian  Hills. 
Here  he  met  the  Caledonians ;  a  people  whom  he  never  con- 
quered, although  he  fought  many  battles  with  them.  Agricola 
sent  some  of  his  ships  around  the  northern  capes  of  Scotland 
and  down  the  western  coast  to  Land's  End,  thereby  making 
the  first  certain  discovery  to  the  Romans  that  Britain  was  an 
island.       The   southern   part  of  Britain   had    now 

A.D.  80.  .  .  ^ 

almost  entirely  submitted,  but  the  Caledonians  were 

constantly  attacking  the   chain  of  forts  and  entrenchments 

which  Agricola  had  constructed  across  the  northern  part  of 

the  country,  from  the  river  Clyde  to  the   Frith  of  Forth. 

Many  generals  marched    into    Scotland,  and  two  emperors, 

Hadrian    and    Severus,   after  in  vain   trying   to 

conquer  these  fierce  people,  built  ramparts  and 

A.D.  308.     walls  as  a  defence  against  them.     The  wall  of 

Severus,  extending  from  the  Solway  to  the  Tyne, 

was  built  of  stone,  and  strengthened  at  frequent  intervals  by 

castles  and  turrets,  which  during  the  Roman  occupation  were 

garrisoned  with  soldiers.     This  rampart  served  to  keep  back 

the  barbarians,  and  for  nearly  seventy  years  after  its  erection, 

Roman  Britain  enjoyed  peace.     The  son  of  Severus  granted 

the  Britons  the  privileges  of  Roman  citizenship. 

During  the  fourth  century  the  Picts,  a  tribe  of  Caledonians, 
and  the  Scots,  a  people  who  had  come  from  Ireland,  rushing 
like  birds  of  prey  from  the  mountain  fastnesses  of  Scotland, 
broke  over  the  wall  of  Severus,  laid  waste  the  country  beyond, 
and  even  advanced  into  the  southern  provinces  of  Britain. 
««-,     M   ^         The  Romans  drove  them  back  as  lone;  as  thev 

367  to  430.  to  J 

could,  but  the  power  of  Rome  was  fast  declining. 
Barbarians  from  the  forests  of  G-ermany  and  Hungary  were 
pouring  down  upon  Gaul,  Spain,  Italy,  and  other  provinces  of 
her  vast  empire.  She  had  need  of  all  her  armies  for  the 
defence  of  the  imperial  city.  In  a.  d.  420,  nearly  five  hundred 
years  after  the  first  landing  of  Cassar,  every  Roman  legion  was 
withdrawn,  and  the  conquerors  took  their  final  departure  from 
Britain. 

2*  B 


18  HISTORY    OF   ENQLANP. 

During  the  five  centuries  of  their  occupation,  the  Romans 
had  done  much  to  improve  the  island,  and  to  better  the  con- 
dition of  the  people.  They  had  erected  fine  broad  paved 
highways  throughout  the  country ;  so  solid  and  so  well  laid, 
that  remains  of  them  are  to  be  seen  at  the  present  day. 
Towns  were  built,  and  the  mud  or  wooden  cottages  of  the  early 
Britons  gave  place  to  houses  of  brick  and  stone.  The  ground 
was  better  cultivated,  and  grain  became  a  plentiful  article  of 
export.  Long  before  the  Romans  came  to  the  island,  a  trade 
in  tin  had  been  carried  on  with  distant  nations,  but  now  the 
mines  were  better  worked  and  greater  quantities  exported. 
Oysters  were  sent  to  Rome  from  the  shores  of  Britain,  and 
were  esteemed  an  article  of  luxury.  Pearls  too  from  the 
same  coasts  acquired  celebrity;  Caesar  is  said  to  have  hung  up 
in  the  temple  of  a  heathen  goddess  at  Rome,  a  shield  studded 
with  British  pearls.  Agricola,  who  was  father-in-law  to 
Tacitus,  the  famous  Roman  historian,  founded  schools,  to 
which  the  British  youth  were  sent  for  instruction  in  the 
language  and  literature  of  Rome. 

But  the  greatest  benefit  bestowed  upon  Britain  b)»her  con- 
querors was  the  introduction  of  Christianity.  When  the 
Romans  first  came,  they  were  themselves  pagans,  for  it  was 
half  a  century  before  the  birth  of  our  Saviour.  When  they 
had  broken  down  the  altars  of  the  Druids,  they  too  built 
shrines,  to  a  milder,  perhaps,  but  still  to  a  false  religion.  To 
Jupiter,  Apollo,  Venus,  and  Diana  were  temples  erected,  and 
in  various  parts  of  London,  statues  and  images  of  the  gods  of 
his  country,  arrested  the  eye  and  claimed  the  worship  of  the 
Roman  soldier.  By  degrees,  as  the  religion  of  the  Saviour 
spread,  Romans  became  converted,  and  among  the  armies  who 
entered  Britain  there  were  no  doubt  Christian  soldiers.  As 
early  as  the  year  of  our  Lord  209  a  Christian  writer  says : 
"  Even  the  places  in  Britain  hitherto  inaccessible  to  Roman 
arms,  have  been  subdued  by  the  gospel  of  Christ !" 

When  the  heathen  emperors  persecuted  Christianity 
throughout  all  the  empire,  British  Christians  suffered  also,  and 
the  first  martyr  of  the  faith  in  this  island  was  St.  Alban,  who 


THE   ROMAN    CONQUEST.  19 

was  put  to  death,  a.d.  286,  during  the  great  persecution  of  the 
emperor  Bioclesian.  In  the  year  314,  three  British  bishops 
were  sent  into  Gaul  to  attend  there  a  Christian  council — by 
which  we  know  that  Christianity  must  have  been  pretty  well 
established  in  Britain  at  that  time. 

The  testimony  of  one  of  the  early  Christian  Fathers, 
Clement  of  Rome,  renders  it  extremely  probable  that  St.  Paul 
himself  visited  Britain.  But,  though  we  have  no  certain 
knowledge  respecting  the  missionaries  who  first  carried  thither 
the  blessed  gospel  of  God,  let  our  hearts  ascend  in  thankful- 
ness to  Him  who  at  this  early  date  permitted  its  glorious  light 
to  dispel  the  darkness  which  for  so  many  centuries  had  brooded 
over  the  country. 

Well  may  the  poet  exclaim : 

"  He  brought  thy  land  a  blessing  when  he  came, 
He  found  thee  savage  and  he  left  thee  tame." 

Questions. — What  is  said  of  the  Roman  conquests  in  the  first 
century  before  the  Christian  era? — When  and  by  whom  were  the 
Roman  arms  first  carried  into  Britain? — Relate  the  efforts  of  the 
Britons  to  prevent  this  invasion. — Repeat  briefly  the  account  of  Cae- 
sar's campaigns  in  Britain. 

When  and  under  what  general  was  the  island  again  invaded  by 
the  Romans? — Describe  the  resistance  of  the  Britons,  and  the  con- 
duct of  Caractacus. — When,  and  by  whom,  was  Anglesey  attacked  ? — 
By  whom  was  the  island  defended? — With  what  result? — Relate  the 
history  of  Boadicea. 

What  benefits  were  conferred  on  the  Britons  by  Agricola  ? — How 
far  did  he  extend  his  invasion  ? — What  discovery  was  made  by  his 
mariners  ? — Mention  the  several  walls  and  fortifications  built  across 
the  northern  part  of  Britain. — What  tribes  broke  through  the  wall 
of  Severus,  and  when? — Why  could  the  Romans  no  longer  defend 
Britain? — When  did  they  take  their  final  departure? 

What  had  been  the  effect  of  the  Roman  occupation  upon  the  island  ? 
— Mention  the  principal  improvements  effected  by  the  Romans  ? — 
What  British  products  were  highly  esteemed  in  Rome  ? — What  reli- 
gion was  first  brought  into  the  island  by  the  armies  of  Rome  ? — What 
faith  was  subsequently  introduced  ? — Name  the  first  British  Christian 
martyr. — What  proof  have  we  of  the  early  establishment  of  a  Christian 
Church  in  Britain  ? 


20  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 


4- 

PART  11. 
SAXON  HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND. 

A.D.  420—1066. 

"  They  came  and  fought  the  Scots  and  Picts, 
But  conquered  Britain,  too  ; 
From  Angle,  a  famed  Saxon  tribe, 
The  name  of  England  grew." 

Hannah  Townsbnd. 


CHAPTER  HI. 

THE   SAXON    INVASION. 


CHARACTER  OF  THE  INVADERS — REPULSE  OF  THE  PICTS  AND  SCOTS— FOUN- 
DATION OP  THE  HEPTARCHY — CONVERSION  TO  CHRISTIANITY — ENGLAND 
UNDER  ONE  SOVEREIGN — THE  DANES. 

When  the  Roman  learions  took  their  departure 

4:30  to  449.     ^..  .111,  lo  .11 

Britain  was  indeed  abandoned;  for  with  the  armies 
that  left  her  shores  sailed  the  flower  of  the  British  youth,  and 
for  many  years  the  valor  of  Britain,  instead  of  being  employed 
at  home,  was  enlisted  elsewhere  against  the  enemijCS  of  the 
Roman  empire.  Meanwhile  the  Picts  and  Scots,  breaking 
over  the  wall  of  Severus,  or  passing  round  it  in  their  little 
coracles,  ravaged  the  land,  and  bid  fair  to  destroy  every  trace 
of  civilization  which  the  Romans  had  left. 

The  disheartened  Britons  refused  to  sow  the  fields 
which  they  knew  an  enemy  would  reap,  and  famine 
and  pestilence  spread  over  the  land.  In  the  depths  of  their 
distress  an  appeal,  called  "  The  Groans  (W  the  Britons,"  was 
made  to  the  Romans.  "The  barbarians,"  say  they,  "chase 
us  into  the  sea ;  the  sea  throws  us  back  upon  the  barbarians ; 
and  we  have  only  the  hard  choice  left  us  of  perishing  by  the 


THE   SAXON    INVASION.  21 

sword  or  by  the  waves."  But  Attila  the  Hun,  an  enemy  bo 
terrible  as  to  be  called  "  the  scourge  of  Grod/'  was  thundering 
at  the  gates  of  the  imperial  city,  and  the  prayer  of  a  distant 
province  was  raised  in  vain. 

In  the  year  449  the  ships  of  two  Saxon  brothers 
were  riding  in  the  English  Channel.     Their  standards 
bore  the  figure  of  a  horse,  and  from  two  words,  both  of  which 
are  in  the  Saxon  language  names  for  that  animal,  these  bro- 
thers were  called  Hengist  and  Horsa. 

On  board  the  Saxon  ships  there  were  perhaps  three  tribes ; 
the  Jutes,  the  Angles,  and  the  Saxons.  They  all  sprang 
from  the  same  race  of  Scandinavian  pirates  which  age  after 
age  left  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  and  North  Seas,  and  were 
known  in  successive  centuries  as  Saxons,  Danes,  and  North- 
men or  Normans.  The  Jutes,  Angles,  and  Saxons  came 
principally  from  Denmark,  and  the  country  lying  to  the  south 
and  west  of  that  peninsula. 

They  were  a  fierce  race,  claiming  to  be  descended  from  Odin 
or  Woden,  a  great  warrior  king  whom  they  worshipped  as  a 
god.  The  religion  of  these  Northmen  was  what  we  might 
expect  of  such  a  people.  Their  Heaven,  or  Valhalla,  as  they 
called  it,  was  a  realm  of  warriors  whose  days  were  passed  in 
fighting,  and  whose  nights  were  spent  in  carousals,  in  which 
they  ate  the  flesh  of  a  huge  boar,  and  drank  great  draughts  of 
mead  from  cups  formed  of  the  skulls  of  their  enemies.  Woden, 
their  god  of  battles,  was  represented  by  an  image,  armed, 
crowned,  and  brandishing  a  drawn  sword.  Thor,  the  god  of 
tempests,  of  thunder  and  lightning,  held  a  mace,  sometimes 
called  "Thor's  mighty  hammer/' 

The  Saxons  and  their  descendants  have  now  learned  of  a 
holier  religion  and  a  purer  heaven,  but  their  heathen  divinities 
still  give  name  to  those  days  of  the  week,  which  in  the  old 
pagan  times  were  especially  consecrated  to  their  worship. 
Thus,  though  so  many  centuries  have  gone  by,  Woden  is  still 
remembered  in  our  Wednes  or  Woden's  day,  Thor  in  our 
Thor's  or  Thursday,  and  from  Frea,  the  wife  of  Odin,  is  named 
our  Friday. 


22  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

These  tribes  delighted  in  war.  Their  weapons,  spears, 
swords,  and  battle-axes,  made  of  steel,  were  always  kept 
bright  and  sharp  and  ready  for  use.  They  were  bold  mari- 
ners and  defied  the  fierce  tempest,  making  themselves  the 
terror  of  the  seas. 

**  The  Norsemen,  trained  to  spoil  and  blood, 
Skilled  to  prepare  the  raven's  food ; 
Kings  of  the  main,  their  leaders  brave, 
Their  barks  the  dragons  of  the  wave." 

Such  were  the  men  yrho,  from  their  war-ships  in  the 
English  Channel,  were  invited  by  Vortigern,  a  British  prince, 
to  land  and  defend  his  dominions  from  the  Picts  and  Scots. 
The  Saxons  gladly  accepted  a  proposal  so  suited  to  their 
tastes,  and  the  Isle  of  Thanet,  now  a  portion  of  Kent,  was 
given  them  for  a  residence.  Soon  they  met  the  Picts  and 
Scots  in  battle,  defeated  and  drove  them  back  to  their  moun- 
tain fastnesses. 

At  a  feast  given  by  Hengist  to  his  British  host,  Rowena, 
the  fair  daughter  of  the  Saxon  warrior,  knelt,  and,  presenting 
to  Vortigern  a  golden  goblet  of  wine,  said  in  Saxon  words, 
"  Dear  king,  thy  health."  Her  grace  and  beauty  so  won 
the  heart  of  Vortigern  that  he  asked  her  in  marriage.  Sho 
became  his  wife,  and  her  influence  with  her  husband  brought 
numbers  of  her  countrymen  to  the  shores  of  Britain. 

The  new  comers,  after  driving  the  Picts  and  Scots  beyond 
the  wall  of  Severus,  aided   by  kindred   tribes, 

449  to  600.  "^  , 

Jutes,  Saxons,  and  Angles,  who  came  pouring 
into  the  island,  turned  upon  the  defenceless  people  whom  they 
had  been  invited  to  protect.  Despite  the  fabled  prowess 
of  King  Arthur  and  his  knights,  and  the  bravery  of  many 
valorous  Britons,  who  for  nearly  two  hundred  years  kept  up 
the  struggle,  at  the  end  of  that  period  the  Saxon  triumphed. 
The  Britons  were  driven  into  other  countries,  or  sought  refuge 
amid  the  wilds  of  Cornwall  or  the  mountains  of  Wales.  There 
they  remained  for  six  hundred  years  the  enemies  of  the 
Saxons,  sometimes  rushing  down  to  lay  waste  their  lands,  then 


THE   SAXON   INVASION.  23 

defeated  and  driven  back  to  their  mountains,  but  ever  to  the 
Saxon  an  unconquered,  unconquerable  foe. 

At  the  end  of  two  hundred  years  from  the  landing  of  Hen- 
gist  and  Horsa,  the  Saxons  had  founded  in  the  conquered 
island,  seven  states,  called  the  Saxon  Heptarchy ;  1.  Kent, 
founded  by  the  son  of  Hengist;  2.  Sussex,  or  the  kingdom 
of  the  South-Saxons ;  3.  Wessex,  or  that  of  the  West-Saxons ; 
4.  Essex,  the  possession  of  the  East-Saxons^  5.  East  Anglia, 
conquered  by  the  Angles,  North-folk  and  South-folk,  which 
still  give  the  name  to  two  English  shires;  6.  Northumbria,  or 
the  country  of  the  people  north  of  the  Humber;  7.  Mercia,  or 
the  woodland  kingdom,  which  was  but  partially  conquered  by 
the  Saxons. 

The  most  interesting  event  in  the  history  of  the  Heptarchy 
is  the  conversion  of  the  pagan  Saxons  to  Christianity.  When 
the  fierce  worshippers  of  Odin  and  Thor  entered  Britain,  the 
religion  of  the  Cross  was  driven  from  the  land,  or  sought 
refuge  with  the  conquered  people  in  the  mountains  of  Wales, 
and  in  later  days  amid  the  rocky  islands  of  the  Hebrides. 
The  churches  of  God  were  despoiled,  and  altars  to  Odin  and 
^,^,  ^ Thor  arose  in  their  stead.     For  a  hundred  and 

44:9  to  597.  T-»  •  . 

fifty  years.  Paganism  reigned  triumphant.  But 
in  the  providence  of  Him  who  delighteth  to  bring  good  out 
of  evil,  the  cruel  custom  which  the  Saxons  practised  of  selling 
their  children  for  slaves,  was  made  the  means  of  introducing 
the  blessings  of  Christianity  into  Britain. 

In  the  public  market-place  of  Rome  some  children  were 
exposed  for  sale.  Gregory,  a  Roman  prior,  struck  by  their 
bright  complexions,  fair  hair,  and  beautiful  forms,  asked 
whence  they  came.  "They  are  Angles,"  was  the  reply. 
"  Angles !"  he  exclaimed,  "  they  would  be  angels  rather,  if 
they  were  but  Christians."  The  benevolent  interest  of  the 
good  prior  did  not  end  with  this  witticism ;  for  a  few  years 
afterwards,  when  he  became  pope,  he  sent  Augustin,  with 
forty  other  monks,  to  preach  the  gospel  to  the  Anglo-Saxons. 
jgy^  This  was  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  597.  A  few  years 
before,  one  of  the  kings  of  the  Heptarchy,  Ethelbcrt 


24  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

of  Kent,  had  married  Bertha,  a  Christian  princess  of  France. 
He  was  therefore  kindly  disposed  towards  the  missionaries,  but 
the  pagan  priests,  who  attributed  the  influence  of  the  Christians 
to  magic,  persuaded  the  king  to  receive  them  in  the  open  air,  for 
they  believed  that  he  would  be  safer  from  their  incantations 
there,  than  under  a  roof  A  ruined  British  Christian  church, 
St.  Martin's  without  the  walls  of  Canterbury,  was  appropriated 
to  their  use,  and  in  a  few  months  King  Ethelbert  received 
Christian  baptism.  Soon  ten  thousand  of  his  subjects  followed 
his  example.  This  cheering  news  so  rejoiced  the  heart  of 
Pope  Gregory,  that  he  made  Augustin  Primate  or  Archbishop 
of  all  England,  and  appointed  Canterbury  his  Episcopal  See. 

You  will  remember  that  upon  the  invasion  of  the  Saxons, 
the  Christian  church  of  Britain  had  sought  refuge  amid  the 
mountains  of  Wales.  The  new  primate  now  endeavored  to 
secure  the  alliance  and  co-operation  of  these  British  Christians 
for  the  conversion  of  the  pagan  Saxons.  Unfortunately  his 
application,  coupled  with  the  demand  that  they  should  acknow- 
ledge the  supremacy  of  the  Pope,  awakened  the  opposition 
of  the  Welsh  ecclesiastics.  Other  grounds  of  difference  also 
existed  between  the  parties. 

Perhaps,  too,  the  Welsh  priests  were  not  a  little  jealous  of 
the  success  of  their  Italian  brethren.  The  zeal  of  Augustin 
and  his  followers  certainly  put  to  shame  the  lukewarmness  of 
the  British  Christians.  Seven  bishops  and  an  abbot  received 
at  Bangor  the  demands  of  the  Roman  primate,  to  all  of  which 
they  returned  a  positive  refusal.  This  rejection  of  his  over- 
tures roused  the  anger  of  Augustin,  and,  assuming  the  gift  of 
prophecy,  he  declared,  that,  because  they  would  not  aid  in  the 
conversion  of  the  Saxons,  by  the  swords  of  the  Saxons  they 
should  perish.  A  few  years  after  the  death  of  the  primate,  this 
fatal  prophecy  met  its  fulfilment  at  the  hands  of  a  Northum- 
brian king  who  ordered  the  slaughter  of  the  monks  of  Bangor. 

Other  states  of  the  Heptarchy  soon  followed  the  example  of 
Kent.  About  A.  d.  604  Sebert,  the  once  pagan  king  of  Essex, 
built  in  London  a  little  Christian  church,  on  the  spot  where 
once  stood  a  temple  of  Diana,  and  where  now  risc^  the  noble 


THE   SAXON   INVASION.  25 

Cathedral  Church  of  St.  Paul's.  In  less  than  ninety  years 
from  the  first  coming  of  St.  Augustin  and  his  forty  monks, 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  Saxon  Heptarchy  had  been  converted 
to  Christianity.  Churches  and  monasteries  arose  in  every 
part  of  the  island.  For  many  years  the  greater  number  of  the 
priests  and  monks  came  from  abroad,  especially  from  Rome, 
and  there  were  eight  Roman  Archbishops  of  Canterbury 
before  a  Saxon  obtained  that  dignity. 

In  the  year  825,  after  nearly  four  centuries  of  wars 
among  the  different  states  of  the  Heptarchy,  they  were 
all  united  under  Egbert,  king  of  Wessex,  and  henceforth  are 
known  as  one  kingdom,  called  Angle-land  or  England. 

Scarcely  was  England  united  under  one  sovereign 
before  she  became  the  prey  of  an  invasion  more  savage, 
if  possible,  than  the  Saxon  had  been.  The  English  were  now 
made  to  suffer  all  the  miseries  which  their  forefathers  had 
inflicted  upon  the  Britons,  and  that  too,  from  a  race  kindred 
with  themselves. 

The  pirates  who  invaded  Britain  in  the  fifth  century  were 
called  Saxons:  those  who  now  came  into  England  in  the  ninth 
century  were  called  Danes.  They  were,  however,  of  the  same 
Scandinavian  race. 

During  these  four  hundred  years,  from  the  fifth  to  the 
ninth  century,  the  Anglo-Saxons  had  embraced  Christianity, 
and,  entirely  abandoning  their  habits  of  sea-»oving,  had  become 
in  some  degree  a  civilized  people. 

Not  so  with  their  fierce  and  pagan  brethren  on  the  other 
side  of  the  German  Ocean.  They  had  grown  bolder  and 
stronger ;  their  wealth  and  their  boast  was  in  their  war-ships. 
They  gloried  in  the  titles  of  Yikinger  and  Sea-King.  They 
chose  for  their  emblems  the  fiercest  of  birds  and  beasts  of  prey. 
The  raven  was  embroidered  on  their  banners,  and  the  dragon 
gave  shape  to  their  vessels.  They  had  long  been  the  terror 
of  the  sea-coast  of  Europe,  and  you  may  be  sure  a  fiercer  set 
of  pirates  never  turned  their  prows  towards  England  than 
the  Danish  sea-kings  of  the  ninth  century. 

Great  indeed  were  the  calamities  which  these  Northmen 
3 


26  HISTORY    or   ENGLAND. 

spread    throughout   England   for   the   space  of  forty  years, 

during  the  reigns  of  Egbert,  his  son,  and  his  three  grandsons. 

Churches,  convents,  and  dwelHngs  were  burned,  and  the  land 

was  plundered  and  wasted.     At  first  the  Danes  were 

871.  ^ 

only  summer  marauders,  and  when  autumn  came  they 
Bailed  away.  But  by  the  year  871  they  had  conquered 
Northumbria,  established  a  capital  at  York,  and  for  seven 
long  years  had  wintered  in  the  laud. 

Questions. — To  what  evils  were  the  Britons  exposed  on  the  de- 
parture of  the  Romans? — Repeat  their  appeal  for  protection. — Why 
was  it  not  successful  ? 

Of  what  race  were  the  Saxons,  Jutes,  and  Angles  ? — Repeat  the 
names  by  which  this  race  was  known  at  different  periods. — What  is 
related  of  their  character  and  religion  ? — Mention  some  of  the  fami- 
liar names  derived  from  those  of  their  divinities. — What  is  told  of 
their  preparations  for  war? — Relate  the  circumstances  which  brought 
them  into  Britain. — What  was  their  conduct  in  that  country  ? — How 
long  did  the  Britons  resist  the  invaders? — What  was  the  iinal  result? 

Name  the  several  kingdoms  of  the  Heptarchy. — Relate  the  circum- 
stances which  led  to  the  introduction  of  Christianity  into  Britain. — 
By  whom  and  in  what  kingdom  was  Christianity  first  established  ? — 
When,  and  under  what  name,  did  the  Saxon  Heptarchy  become 
united  ? 

Of  what  race  were  the  Danes  ? — Describe  their  character  and 
habits. — When  did  they  first  invade  England? — What  evils  did  they 
inflict  for  the  space  of  forty  years? — During  whose  reigns  were  these 
ravages  committed* — What  was  the  condition  of  England  in  the 
year  871  ? 


CHAPTER  IV 

KING   ALFRED   THE   GREAT. 

HIS    EARLY  DAYS — CONFLICTS  WITH  THE  DANES — THE  BENEFICENT  RULER. 

«  When  the  tale  of  bricks  is  doubled,  Moses  comes/'  says 
the  Jewish  proverb ;  and  now  when  the  bondage  of  the  Saxons 
was  heaviest,  God  raised  up  for  them  a  deliverer. 


KING    ALFRED  THE   GREAT.  27 

In  the  year  871  the  crown  of  England  rested  upon  a  young 
prince  of  twenty-three, — the  youngest  of  four  brothers,  but 
one  whose  wisdom  and  valor  fitted  him  to  be  the  defender  of 
his  country.  This  prince  was  Alfred,  most  justly  surnamed 
the  Great.  From  early  childhood  he  had  given  promise  of 
future  greatness.  When  only  eight  years  old  he  went  with 
his  father,  King  Ethelwulf,  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome. 

Rome,  the  queen  city  of  the  ^orld,  had  lost  much  of  her 
ancient  splendor.  The  barbarian  had  paced  her  streets  and 
despoiled  her  glory.  Yet  in  Alfred's  time,  her  beautiful 
Coliseum,  her  noble  Capitol,  her  Amphitheatre,  her  palaces 
and  columns  and  gateways,  were  far  more  perfect  than  they 
are  at  the  present  day.  Child  though  he  was,  the  splendor 
of  the  papal  court  and  of  the  imperial  city  made  a  deep 
impression  on  his  mind,  as  he  contrasted  it  with  the  almost 
barbarous  rudeness  of  his  own  land. 

In  those  days  the  Bishop  of  Rome  had  taken  the 
title  of  Pope  [Papa],  and  claimed  to  be  the  head  of  the 
Christian  world.  With  his  own  hand  he  poured  the  sacred 
oil  upon  the  head  of  the  child  Alfred,  thus  anointing  him  the 
future  king  of  England.  The  pope  performed  this  ceremony 
in  imitation  of  the  ancient  custom  of  the  Jewish  law.  And 
surely  since  the  days  when  the  High  Priest  Samuel  anointed 
the  young  David  king  over  Israel,  never  was  there  a  better 
prince  set  apart  by  the  anointing  oil  than  Alfred  of  England. 
One  day,  after  his  return  to  his  own  country,  his  mother, 
Osburgha,  was  reading  to  her  children  a  Saxon  poem,  from  one 
of  the  illuminated  or  richly  painted  books  of  that  day.  The 
boys  admired  the  book.  "  I  will  give  it,"  said  the  mother, 
"to  him  among  you  who  shall  first  learn  to  read  it."  The 
elder  brothers  gave  up  the  prize  which  was  to  be  won  at  such 
a  cost,  but  Alfred  sought  a  teacher,  learned  to  read  Anglo- 
Saxon,  and  was  rewarded  with  the  book. 

Years  had  passed   by  since  the  anointing  oil   had   been 

poured  by  the  pope  upon  Alfred's  head.     He  had  seen  his 

three  brothers  in  quick  succession  mount  the  throne, 

and  now  they  were  all  dead,  and  the  kingdom  had  fallen 


28  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

to  him.  The  Danes  had  made  it  a  legacy  little  to  be  coveted, 
for,  with  the  exception  of  the  kingdom  of  Wessex,  they  were 
the  real  masters  of  England. 

One  of  Alfred's  first  acts  was  to  build  a  few  vessels.  With 
these,  the  daring  pirates  were  met  on  th^  sea,  and  i-n  two  naval 
battles  the  English  triumphed.  The  Danes,  however,  were 
not  disheartened :  they  came  in  still  greater  numbers,  and 
after  many  battles.  King  Alfred  was  obliged  to  flee, 
g^g^  He  sought  rei'uge  in  a  lonely  spot  in  Somersetshire, 
known  still  as  Athelney,  or  Prince's  Island.  One  day, 
whilst  lodging  in  the  cottage  of  a  peasant,  he  was  told  to  watch 
some  oaten  bread  which  the  wife  of  the  peasant  was  baking  on 
the  hearth.  The  king,  whose  sad  heart  was  dwelling  on  the 
troubles  of  his  realm,  forgot  his  trust.  When  the  woman 
came  in,  and  found  her  loaves  burning,  she  scolded  well  the 
negligent  stranger,  exclaiming,  "  You  man  !  you  will  not  turn 
the  bread  you  see  burning,  but  you  will  be  glad  enough  to  eat 
it."  Little  thought  the  good  woman  that  she  was  scolding 
her  king. 

Alfred  remained  but  a  few  months  in  his  retreat  at  Athel- 
ney. Disguising  himself  as  a  minstrel  or  gleeman,  in  that 
ever-welcome  character  he  entered  the  Danish  camp.  Whilst 
amusing  the  chiefs  with  song  and  story,  he  observed  their 
numbers  and  noted  their  idle  security. 

He  then  returned  to  his  followers,  and  gathering  around 
him  at  his  trysting-place  in  Selwood  Forest  a  band  of  true- 
hearted  men,  he  met  the  Danes  at  Ethandune,  on  the  banks 
of  the  river  Avon,  and  gained  a  complete  victory. 

The  Danes  asked  for  peace.  xVlfred  was  as  wise  as  he  was 
brave.  He  knew  that  though  he  should  fight  battle  after 
battle  with  these  heathen  Danes,  yet  they  would  come  again  in 
greater  numbers,  and  make  England  a  continual  battle-field. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  he  could  induce  them  to  become 
Christians,  and  to  settle  peaceably  in  the  country  (for  there 
was  land  enough  and  to  spare,  for  both  Dane  and  Saxon),  then 
they  might  not  only  become  good  subjects,  but  help  to  drive 
away  other  tribes  of  their  fierce  countrymen. 


KING   ALFRED   THE  GREAT.  29 

These  terms  Alfred  proposed  to  the  Danish  king,  Guthrum, 
after  the  battle  of  Ethandune.  They  were  accepted.  Guth- 
rum received  Christian  baptism,  King  Alfred  answering  for 
him  at  the  font.  To  the  Danes  was  granted  that  large  portion 
of  eastern  England  which  they  had  overrun.  It  was  then 
called  Danelagh,  or  the  country  under  the  law  of  the  Dane. 

For  a  time  the  land  had  rest.  The  king  gathered  around 
him  learned  men,  and  began  those  improvements  which,  more 
than  his  battles,  have  gained  him  the  title  of  Great.  But  not 
yet  was  he  to  lay  aside  the  warrior.  At  the  end  of  twelve 
years  Guthrum  had  died.  Some  of  his  Danes  had  broken 
their  promises  of  peace,  and  welcomed  to  England  new  hosts 
of  their  plundering  countrymen.  Then  came  the  famous  sea- 
king,  Hastings,  with  a  fleet  of  two  hundred  and  fifty 
vessels,  and  for  three  years  the  Raven  of  Denmark, 
borne  on  the  standard  of  this  bold  chief,  was  the  terror  of 
every  province  of  England  At  length,  however,  English 
valor  prevailed,  and  the  defeated  and  dispirited  Hastings 
sailed  away  to  other  lands. 

Only  four  years  remained  to  the  life  of  Alfred,  but  they 
were  glorious  years  for  England.  He  divided  the  kingdom 
into  counties.  He  established  justice  and  order  in  the  land, 
and  made  the  laws  so  respected,  that  it  is  said  bracelets  and 
jewels  might  be  hung  up  on  the  highway,  and  no  man  would 
dare  to  touch  them.  He  taught  his  people  to  build  better 
houses,  and  better  churches.  To  his  court  he  invited  learned 
and  good  men  from  all  countries. 

He  entertained  geographers  and  navigators,  and  gained  a 
knowledge  of  other  lands.  Hearing  of  a  Christian  colony  on 
the  coast  of  Hindoostan,  he  sent  thither  an  English  bishop  to 
visit  them.  This  long  and  perilous  overland  journey  was 
accomplished,  and  India  first  heard  of  that  distant  isle,  which, 
ere  a  thousand  years  had  gone  by,  was  to  become  her  ruler. 
The  worthy  bishop  brought  home  rich  treasures  of  spices  and 
gems,  and  thereby  India's  products  first  became  known  to  the 
Anglo-Saxon. 

King  Alfred  established  schools,  and  provided  for  the 
8* 


so  HISTORY   OP    ENGLAND. 

instruction  of  his  people.  The  world-reuowned  University  of 
Oxford  looks  back  with  gratitude  to  this  good  king  as  its 
liberal  beuefactor,  if  not  its  founder.  He  did  much  to  im- 
prove the  language  of  his  subjects.  Hitherto  nearly  all  the 
books  had  been  written  in  Latin,  which  few  of  the  people 
could  read.  Alfred  ordered  "  all  good  and  useful  books"  to 
be  translated  into  English.  He  was  himself  a  scholar,  and 
translated  the  Book  of  Psalms,  and  other  portions  of  God's 
word.  A  more  precious  legacy  could  hardly  have  been  left 
by  a  ruler  to  his  subjects. 

Alfred  divided  his  time  into  three  portions.  Eight  hours 
were  given  to  the  aflfairs  of  the  state,  eight  to  study  and  devo- 
tion, and  eight  to  sleep,  exercise,  and  refreshment.  Clocks 
and  watches  were  unknown,  and  to  supply  their  place,  Alfred 
invented  time-candles.  These  were  made  of  wax,  notched  at 
regular  intervals,  and  indicated  by  their  burning  the  flight  of 
the  hours.  The  wind  coming  in  through  the  doors  and  win- 
dows, "and  the  numerous  chinks  in  the  icalls  of  the  palace," 
caused  his  candles  to  flare,  whereupon  Alfred  provided  for 
their  protection  a  lantern  of  transparent  horn. 

It  is  pleasant  to  dwell  upon  the  graces  and  virtues  of  Eng- 
land's noblest  monarch.  When  we  remember  that,  amid  all 
the  cares  of  government,  and  labors  of  study,  he  was  sufi"ering 
from  a  painful  disease,  which  his  physicians  could  neither 
understand  nor  cure,  still  more  wonderful  will  appear  the 
brightness  of  his  character.  Nor  shall  we  deem  it  strange, 
that  through  a  thousand  years  his  name  has  lived  in  the 
memories  and  affections  of  men,  as  Alfred  the  Great.  In  the 
year  901,  at  the  age  of  fifty-three,  this  good  man  and 
great  sovereign  was  laid  in  his  tomb  in  the  monastery 
of  Winchester,  leaving  behind  him  a  name  which  shall  be  had 
in  "  everlasting  remembrance.'' 


Questions. — Who  ascended  the  English  throne  in  871  ? — When 
had  he  visited  Rome  ? — What  objects  there  had  attracted  his  admi- 
ration?— What  ceremony  was  performed  by  the  pope? — Relate  tha 
anecdote  of  Alfred's  learning  to  read. 


ENGLAND  UNDER  THE  DANES.  SI 

What  was  the  condition  of  England  when  Alfred  ascended  the 
throne  ? — State  the  result  of  his  first  encounters  with  the  Danes. — 
Relarte  the  story  of  the  king  and  the  oaten  bread. — What  encouraged 
him  to  try  another  encounter  with  the  Danes  ? — Where  did  this  en- 
counter take  place  ? — What  was  the  result  of  it  ? — On  what  terms  did 
Alfred  offer  peace  to  the  Danes  ? — How  were  they  received  by  Guth- 
rum  ? — What  was  the  result  ? — Give  an  account  of  a  Danish  invasion 
later  in  this  reign. 

State  some  of  the  benefits  bestowed  by  Alfred  upon  his  people. — 
How  was  a  knowledge  of  India  obtained  during  Alfred's  reign  ? — 
What  was  done  by  Alfred  for  the  promotion  of  education  ? — What 
book  did  he  translate? — How  did  he  divide  and  regulate  his  time? — 
What  circumstance  greatly  enhances  the  merit  of  his  labors? — When 
did  he  die  ? — Where  was  he  buried  ? 


CHAPTER  V. 

ENGLAND  UNDER  THE  DANES,  —j" 

THE  SUCCESSORS  OP  ALFRED — ETHELRED  THE  UNREADY — THE  DANE  KINGS 
—  EDWARD  THE  CONFESSOR. 

Edward,  the  son,  and  Athdstane,  Edmund,  and  Edred, 
the  grandsons  of  Alfred,  proved  themselves  worthy  successors 
of  such  a  sovereign.  They  put  down  insurrections  in  the 
Danelagh,  taking  many  towns  from  those  restless  Danes,  and 
obliging  them  to  dwell  quietly  in  their  own  border.  Athel- 
stane  fought  with  the  Welsh,  and  made  them  pay  tribute  of 
gold  and  silver,  of  hawks  and  hounds.  He  was  the  first  Saxon 
sovereign  who  took  the  title  of  King  of  England.  Even  the 
great  Alfred  had  only  styled  himself  "  King  of  the  West- 
Saxons.'' 

At  the  end  of  fifty  years  the  Danes  of  the  Danelagh 

had  no  more  their  own  royal  ruler.     Their  country  was 

no  longer  one  great  kingdom  of  Northumbria,  but  was  divided 

into  the  provinces  which  still  bear  the  namees  of  Yorkshire, 


32  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

Durham,  Northumberland,  &c.  The  population  was  Danish 
nevertheless,  and  subjection  to  an  Anglo-Saxon  king  was  a 
most  unwilling  yoke.  They  turned  their  eyes  towards  the  sea, 
ready  to  welcome  the  first  pirate  chief  who  would  help  them 
to  re-establish  their  own  power  in  the  land. 

Such  an  opportunity  was  offered  in  the  reign  of  Ethelred, 
who  came  to  the  throne  in  the  year  978,  on  the  murder  of  his 
elder  step-brother,  Edward,  surnamed  the  Martyr,  This  crime 
had  been  committed  by  Elfrida,  the  mother  of  Ethelred,  in 
order  to  place  the  crown  upon  his  brow.  It  excited  universal 
horror  throughout  the  nation.  "  No  worse  deed  than  this," 
says  the  Saxon  Chronicle,  "  had  been  committed  among  the 
people  of  the  Angles,  since  they  first  came  to  the  land  of 
Britain." 

Dunstan,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  opposed  Ethelred' s 
accession.  This  Dunstan  was  an  ambitious  and  powerful 
priest,  who  for  many  years,  especially  during  the  reigns  of 
Edwy  and  Edgar,  the  predecessors  of  Ethelred,  had  more 
truly  ruled  the  realm  than  the  king  who  wore  the  crown. 
Dunstan  tried  to  persuade  the  nun,  Edgitha,  a  half-sister  of 
Ethelred,  to  become  queen,  but  she  thought  of  her  murdered 
brother,  and  of  the  short  reigns  and  sad  deaths  of  many  a 
Saxon  king,  and  wisely  refused  to  leave  the  quiet  of  the 
cloister  for  the  perils  of  a  throme. 

There  was  no  other  heir,  and  Dunstan  was  most  unwillingly 
forced  to  make  the  young  Ethelred  king.  It  is  said  that,  in 
placing  the  crown  on  his  brow,  the  angry  archbishop  pro- 
nounced a  curse,  instead  of  a  blessing,  on  the  unhappy  young 
monarch.  He  gave  him,  also,  the  nickname  of  "  the 
Unready."  The  curse,  alas  I  had  its  fulfilment,  for  in 
this  unfortunate  prince,  the  glory  of  the  house  of  Alfred  was 
for  ever  lost.  He  proved  himself,  also,  but  too  deserving  of 
the  nickname  of  ''  Unready." 

For  about  thirty  years  the  land  had  had  rest  from  the  Danes, 

but  scarcely  had  Ethelred  been  three  years  on  the  throne,  when 

the  raven  banner  of  the  sea-kings  was  again  raised  in 

England.      This  time  the  Danish  hosts  were  led  by 


ENGLAND  UNDER  THE  DANES.  83 

Swejn,  a  prince,  and  afterwards  king  of  Denmark.  And  how 
did  the  weak  King  Ethelred  repel  them '{  Not  as  his  braver 
ancestors  had  done,  by  courage  and  arms,  but  by  bribes  of 
silver  and  gold.  Of  course  they  came  again,  plundering  and 
burning  as  before.  More  money  was  given  them,  and 
the  Banegeld  (as  the  gold  given  to  bribe  the  Danes 
away  was  called)  rose  from  ten  to  sixteen,  and  finally  to 
twenty-four  thousand  pounds.  Then  the  weak  King  Ethelred 
tried  another  means  to  get  rid  of  the  enemy.  He  married 
Emma,  ''  the  Flower  of  Normandy,"  as  she  was  called.  She 
was  the  sister  of  Richard,  duke  of  the  Normans,  and  Ethelred 
hoped,  by  the  aid  of  these  strangers,  to  drive  the  Danes  from 
the  land. 

The  Normans,  as  one  might  suppose  from  their  name,  were 
themselves  Northmen,  of  the  same  race  originally  as  the  Saxons 
and  Danes.  Nearly  a  hundred  years  before  the  reign  of  King 
Ethelred,  they  had  fallen  upon  France,  pretty  much  as  the 
Saxons  had  upon  England.  The  French  king  gave  to  their 
leader,  llolfe,  or  Rollo,  a  large  portion  of  territory.  The 
invaders  settled  therein,  broke  off  their  connection  with  their 
sea-roving  countrymen,  gave  up  even  the  religion  and  language 
of  their  ancestors,  and  became,  in  the  course  of  a  century,  a 
people  as  brave  as  the  Saxons,  and  in  some  respects  more  civil- 
ized. King  Ethelred  hoped  that  by  his  marriage  with  Emma 
of  Normandy,  Norman  soldiers  would  come  over  and  help  him 
fight  the  Danes. 

In  this  hope  he  was  disappointed,  and  now  the  third 
method  which  he  took  to  rid  himself  of  the  enemy,  was 
quite  as  weak  as  the  other  two,  and  far  more  wicked.  On  the 
loth  of  November,  1002,  known  as  the  Festival  of  St.  Brice, 
he  ordered  the  Danes  to  be  put  to  death.  The  fearful,  trea- 
cherous order  was  obeyed.  In  one  night,  this  new  Danish 
population,  which,  during  twenty  years  of  invasion,  had  become 
mingled  with  the  English,  was  laid  low  by  the  swords  of  their 
hosts  and  neighbors.  Among  the  dead  was  Gunhilda,  the 
sister  of  the  Danish  king.  When  the  tidings  reached  his  ears, 
Sweyn  vowed  a  fearful  revenge. 


34  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

A  larger  fleet,  a  more  numerous  army  than  had  ever  before 
gathered  for  the  invasion  of  Saxon  England,  now  assembled. 
To  the  natural  ferocity  of  the  invaders  was  added  a  burning 
thirst  for  vengeance.  ''  These  choice  warriors  embarked  in 
lofty  ships,  every  one  of  which  bore  the  ensign  of  its  separate 
commander.  Some  carried  at  their  prow  such  figures  as  lions, 
bulls,  dolphins,  dragons,  or  armed  men  of  metal,  gayly  gilded  3 
others  carried  on  their  topmast  head  the  figures  of  large  birds, 
as  eagles  and  ravens,  that  stretched  out  their  wings  and  turned 
with  the  wind ;  the  sides  of  the  ship  were  painted  with  differ- 
ent bright  colors,  and  from  stem  to  stern  shields  of  burnished 
steel  were  suspended  in  even  lines,  and  glittered  in  the  sun. 
Gold,  silver,  and  embroidered  banners  were  displayed,  and  the 
whole  wealth  of  the  pirates  of  the  Baltic  lent  its  aid  to  thia 
barbaric  pomp.  The  ship  that  bore  the  royal  standard  of 
Sweyn  was  moulded  in  the  form  of  an  enormous  serpent,  the 
sharp  head  of  which  formed  the  prow,  while  the  lengthening 
tail  coiled  over  the  poop.  It  was  called  'The  Great  Dragon.'  " 
The  fearful  host  landed  in  England.     No  Danegeld 

1003« 

could  make  them  depart  now.  Town  after  town,  pro- 
vince after  province  yielded.  At  last  they  drove  the  weak 
King  Ethelred  beyond  seas,  to  take  refuge  with  his  Norman 
brother-in-law,  and  at  the  end  of  ten  years  of  ravage  and  plun- 
der and  warfare,  Sweyn,  king  of  Denmark,  •became  king  of 

Enji'laud  too.     He  died  before  his  coronation,  and  the 

XO 13 

Danes  proclaimed  Canute,  his  son,  as  king.  The  Saxon 
cause  was  upheld  by  a  sou  of  Ethelred's,  Edmund,  surnamed 
Ironsides.  After  some  battles,  the  kingdom  was  divided  be- 
tween the  two  rulers,  Saxon  and  Dane.  In  a  few  months, 
however,  Edmund  Ironsides  died,  and  Canute  the  Dane  be- 
came full  king  of  England.  At  the  end  of  nearly  two 
hundred  years  of  invasion,  a  Danish  race  of  monarchs 
was  thus  seated  on  the  English  throne. 

Canute  did  not  feel  very  secure  in  his  new  kingdom,  and 
cruel  were  the  means  he  took  to  render  himself  more  at  ease. 
He  said  to  his  Danish  warriors,  ''  He  who  brings  me  the  head 
of  one  of  my  enemies,  shall  be  dearer  to  me  than  a  brother/* 


ENGLAND  UNDER  THE  DANES.  85 

and  the  head  of  many  a  Saxon  chief  purchased  this  brotherly 
affection.  The  young  sous  of  Edmund  Ironsides  were  sent  to 
Sweden,  Canute  hoping  that  the  king  of  that  country  would 
cause  them  to  be  put  to  death.  The  Swedish  king  did  not 
murder  them,  but  sent  them  far  away  into  Hungary,  wher«, 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  cruel  Dane,  they  were  kindly  treated. 
There  were  two  other  heirs  to  the  English  throne.  Ethel- 
red  himself  was  dead,  but  had  left  two  sons  at  the  court  of  his 
Norman  brother-in-law.  Canute  could  not  murder  these  child- 
ren, but  he  entered  into  treaty  with  their  uncle,  Duke  Richard, 
and  proposed  to  make  their  mother  a  second  time  queen  of 
England.  And  Emma,  the  heartless  "  Flower  of  Normandy," 
for  the  2;lory  of  a  throne,  forgot  the  love  and  care  she 

1017.  .  . 

owed  her  children,  and  became  the  wife  of  this  strange 
Danish  king,  the  cruel  enemy  of  her  Saxon  husband  and  their 
sons. 

When  Canute  had  disposed  of  all  his  enemies,  he  became  a 
milder  and  a  better  king,  and  sought  to  win  the  favor  of  his 
subjects.  He  gathered  round  him  the  minstrels  and  gleemen, 
and  delighted  in  old  songs  and  ballads,  and  even  made  verses 
himself  for  the  people.  He  made  good  laws  for  his  kingdom, 
and  becoming  a  Christian,  founded  churches  and  monasteries. 
One  day,  disgusted  with  the  flatteries  of  his  courtiers,  he 
caused  his  throne  to  be  placed  on  the  sea-shore,  when  the  tide 
was  coming  in.  Then,  as  the  waves  rolled  on  with  their 
resistless  might,  he  commanded  them  to  retire,  ^'  nor  presume 
to  wet  the  edge  of  his  robe."  But,  as  each  succeeding  wave 
broke  nearer  the  royal  feet,  he  turhed  to  his  courtiers,  saying, 
^'  Confess  now  how  vain  is  the  might  of  an  earthly  king, 
compared  to  that  Great  Power  who  alone  can  say  to  the  ocean, 
^  Hitherto  shalt  thou  come,  but  no  further :  and  here  shall  thy 
proud  waves  be  stayed.'  " 

To  Canute  succeeded  his  sons,  Harold  and  Hardi- 

canute,   the  latter  being  the   child  of  the  Norman 

Emma.     But  though  this  heartless  woman  forgot  the  claims 

of  her  Saxon  first-born  at  the  court  of  Normandy,  there  were 

those  in   England  who   were   not  unmindful   of  his  rights. 


30  HISTORY    OF    KiN GLAND. 

During  the  reigns  of  the  Danish  monarchs,  there  was  a  strong 
Saxon  party  in  England,  headed  by  Godwin,  the  "Great  Earl," 
as  he  was  called,  and  his  six  stalwart  sons.  On  the  death  of 
Hardicanute,  this  party  succeeded  in  bringing  Edward,  the 
son  of  Ethelred,  from  his  long  Norman  exile,  and  placing  him 
on  the  English  throne.  / 
^^^^         This  last  descendant  of  the  race  of  Alfred  was  far 

104:3. 

from  proving  the  Saxon  king  for  whom  the  people 
longed.  He  had  been  brought  up  in  another  land ;  he  had 
learne^d  a  foreign  language,  and  could  scarcely  speak  the  Saxon 
tongue ;  he  loved  the  ways  and  manners  of  those  among  whom 
he  had  lived ;  he  was  a  stranger  in  his  own  kingdom.  In  his 
reign,  the  coming  event  of  the  great  Norman  conquest  cast  a 
broad  shadow  over  the  land.  Normans  filled  the  English  court. 
Edward  was  a  most  pious  king,  according  to  the  piety  of  those 
days,  and  won  the  name  of  Edward  "  the  Confessor,"  or  "  the 
Saint.''  He  loVed  to  be  surrounded  by  priests  and  monks, 
and  soon  the  churches,  the  abbeys,  the  monasteries,  and  the 
convents  were  filled  with  favored  Normans.  Even  the 
archbishopric  of  Canterbury  was  given  to  a  foreign  prelate. 
Norman-French  was  the  language  spoken  at  court  and  in  the 
halls  of  justice,  and  those  who  sought  the  royal  favor,  laid 
aside  their  homely  Saxon  tongue,  and  studied  the  language 
of  the  strangers.  The  simple  mark  of  the  cross  as  the  royal 
signature  was  abandoned,  and  in  its  place  was  used  "  the  great 
seal."  The  fashionable,  too,  imitated  the  Norman  dress.  So 
completely  had  the  court  of  England  become  Norman,  that 
when,  in  the  year  1051,  William,  the  young  duke  of  that 
country,  came  over  to  pay  Edward  a  visit,  he  found  himself  so 
surrounded  by  the  people  and  the  customs  of  his  own  duchy, 
that  he  could  scarcely  realize  that  he  had  crossed  the  Channel. 
All  these  things  displeased  much  the  Great  Earl  Godwin  and 
the  Saxon  party. 

On  the  death  of  Godwin,  his  son  Harold  succeeded 

to  his  earldom  and  power,  and  rose  to  even  a  higher 
place  in  the  afiections  of  the  people.  King  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor had  no  children,  and  his  life  was  drawing  to  its  close. 


ENGLAND  UNDER  THE  DANES.  37 

He  sent  to  Hungary  for  the  son  of  Edmund  Ironsides.  This 
prince  came  to  England,  but  shortly  after  his  arrival, 
died,  leaving  a  son  so  young  and  incapable,  that  no 
one  thought  of  him  as  the  future  king.  The  hearts  of  the 
English  clustered  around  Earl  Harold.  The  Norman  favorites 
thought  of  their  own  duke.  When  William  of  Normandy 
visited  England,  and  saw  around  him  so  much  that  reminded 
him  of  his  own  duchy,  the  hope,  no  doubt,  arose  in  his  mind, 
that  one  day  the  Saxon  court  might  become  Norman,  and  he 
the  Norman  king  of  England,  William  said,  moreover,  that 
when  he  and  Edward  were  boys  together  in  Normandy,  the 
latter  had  promised,  should  he  ever  become  king  of  England, 
to  leave  the  crown,  at  his  death,  to  his  Norman  playfellow. 

But  William  feared  Earl  Harold;  and  once,  when  the  latter 
was  in  Normandy,  kept  him  a  sort  of  prisoner,  until  he  had 
extorted  from  him  an  oath  to  aid  the  treacherous  duke  in  get- 
ting the  English  crown  at  Edward's  death.  Harold  returned 
to  England.  He  felt  that,  should  the  people  make  him  king, 
no  oath  forced  from  him  by  the  Norman  William,  should 
induce  him  to  betray  his  country  to  a  stranger. 

On  the  eve  of  the  Festival  of  the  Epiphany,  in  the  year 
1066,  King  Edward  the  Confessor  died.  He  had  rebuilt 
Westminster  Abbey  from  its  foundations,  and  with  great 
solemnity  and  pomp,  his  remains  were  interred  in  a  beautiful 
tomb  within  the  sacred  walls  of  the  newly-finished  edifice. 


Questions. — Relate  the  deeds  of  Alfred's  successors. — What  was 
the  condition  of  the  Danes  under  these  sovereigns? — By  what  means 
did  Ethelred  obtain  the  throne? — Who  was  Dunstan,  and  what  of  his 
influence  in  the  kingdom? — How  did  he  seek  to  avoid  crowning  Eth- 
elred ? — Relate  his  conduct  on  the  occasion. — By  what  means  did 
Ethelred  endeavor  to  repel  the  Danes  ? — What  was  his  second  plan 
to  eiFect  this  object  ? 

Who  were  the  Normans  ? — Describe  their  condition  in  this  cen- 
tury.— Relate  Ethelred's  last  attempt  to  get  rid  of  the  Danes. — What 
did  it  bring  upon  his  kingdom? — Describe  the  armament  which 
approached  England. — What  was  the  result  of  this  invasion  ? — Give 
the  name  and  early  character  of  the  first  Dane  king  of  England. — 
4 


So  HISTORY   OF  ENGLAND. 

Relate  some  of  his  acts. — Describe  his  character  and  conduct  in  the 
latter  years  of  his  reign. — Who  succeeded  him  ? 

When,  in  whose  person,  and  by  whose  efforts,  was  the  Saxon  line 
restored  ? — Describe  the  new  influences  introduced  by  this  sovereign. 
— Who  endeavored  to  counteract  these  ? — What  two  parties  existed 
in  the  kingdom  ? — Whom  did  the  Saxons  regard  with  favor  as  Ed- 
ward's successor  ? — By  what  means  did  the  Norman  duke  endeavor 
to  secure  his  own  succession  ? — When  did  Edward  die  ? — Where  was 
he  buried  ? 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  LAST  OF  THE  SAXON  KINGS. 

WILLIAM  THE  NORMAN    PREPARES    TO    INVADE    ENGLAND — HAROLD  REPELS 
THE    INVASION    OP    TOSTIG — THE    BATTLE    OP    HASTINGS. 

The  Saxon  chroniclers  assert  that  Edward,  before  his 
death,  named  Harold,  the  son  of  Earl  Godwin,  as  his  suc- 
cessor. Be  this  as  it  may,  the  crown  was  placed  upon  the 
brow  of  the  Saxon  earl  a  few  hours  only  after  the  saint-king 
had  been  laid  in  his  tomb. 

William,  the  Norman  duke,  was  hunting  in  his  park,  near 
the  royal  city  of  Rouen,  when  the  tidin^^s  of  Edward's 

1066.  J  J  J  G 

death  and  Harold's  coronation  reached  him.  Casting 
aside  his  bow  and  arrows,  he  hastened  in  silence  to  his  palace. 
So  dreadfully  agitated  did  he  seem,  that  for  a  time  none  dared 
approach  or  speak  with  him.  At  length  a  favorite  courtier 
arrived  at  the  palace,  and  ventured  to  ask  the  duke  the  cause 
of  his  uneasiness.  "  My  spite,"  replied  William,  '^  comes  from 
the  death  of  Edward,  and  the  wrong  that  Harold  has  done  me." 
"Well,  sire,"  answered  his  friend,  "be  not  wroth  at  what  can 
be  mended ;  for  the  death  of  Edward  there  is  no  help,  but 
there  is  one  for  the  wrongs  of  Harold ;  justice  is  on  your  side, 
and  you  have  good  soldiers;  undertake  boldly; — a  thing  well 
begun  is  half  done." 

William  accepted  the  proverb,  and  from  that  moment  all 


THE  LAST  OF  THE  SAXON  KINGS.  39 

his  energies  were  taxed  to  accomplish  the  conquest  of  Eng- 
land. The*  nobles  of  his  court  were  eager  for  the  enterprise, 
but  the  other  classes  of  the  duke's  subjects  were  far  from 
willing  to  cross  the  Channel  and  fight  for  a  kingdom  to  which 
their  master,  at  best,  had  but  a  doubtful  claim.  In  a  large 
assembly  which  was  held  in  one  of  the  Norman  towns,  Fitz- 
Osborn,  a  staunch  friend  of  William's,  tried  to  persuade  the 
people  to  yield  to  his  wishes.  They  refused,  and  bade  Fitz- 
Osborn  tell  the  duke  that  they  ''  would  serve  him  in  his  own 
country,  but  they  were  not  bound  to  assist  him  in  conquering 
the  country  of  other  men."  Instead  of  delivering  this  mes- 
sage, Fitz-Osborn,  whose  whole  soul  was  in  the  enterprise, 
gave  a  very  difi'erent  one,  and  told  Duke  William,  that  his 
faithful  vassals  were  ready  to  serve  him  beyond  sea  to  the 
utmost  of  their  power.  When  the  people  heard  this  false 
message,  the  council  hall  rang  with  cries  of  "  No !  No !  we 
never  charged  you  with  such  an  answer — we  did  not  say 
that — that  will  never  be."  The  people  dispersed-  in  great 
anger  and  tumult. 

William,  hiding  his  wrath,  took  the  chief  members  of  the 
assembly,  one  by  one,  and  spoke  to  them  in  such  persuasive 
words  of  the  great  glory  and  wealth  which  would  be  gained 
by  this  expedition,  that  their  prejudices  were  overcome,  and 
as  each  one  gave  his  own  consent,  he  used  his  influence  to 
win  over  others.  By  degrees  all  opposition  was  overcome, 
and  the  wily  William  had  the  written  promise  of  his  people's 
aid. 

Then  the  Norman  duke  published  his  ban  of  war  in  other 
countries,  and  adventurers  from  all  parts  flocked  to  his  stand- 
ard. The  Pope  sent  his  blessing,  together  with  a  consecrated 
banner,  a  precious  ring,  valued  among  relics  as  containing  a 
hair  from  the  head  of  St.  Peter;  and  a  letter  giving  him  per- 
mission to  conquer  England,  on  condition  that  he  should  hold 
it  in  subjection  to  the  Holy  See.  To  this  letter  was  affixed  a 
round  leaden  seal,  called  in  Latin,  '^  bulla,"  and  from  this  has 
come  the  name  of  ^^bull,"  as  applied  to  pontifical  decrees 
bearing  this  seal. 


40  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

The  sound  of  preparation  was  heard  through  all  the 
Norman  land.  Suiiths,  armorers,  and  ship-builders 
"wrought  incessantly,  and  by  midsummer  a  fleet  of  six  hundred 
large  vessels,  and  many  smaller  transports,  had  assembled  on 
the  coast  of  Normandy.  When  William  had  overcome  all 
human  obstacles  to  his  plans,  then  arose  those  over  which  no 
mortal  has  control.  The  winds  were  contrary,  and  for  more 
than  a  morith  kept  William's  fleet  idle  on  the  shores  of  his  own 
duchy.  Idleness  bred  discontent.  The  soldiers  and  sailors 
began  to  say,  "  He  is  mad !  that  man  is  very  mad  who  seeks 
to  take  possession  of  another's  country !  God  is  angry  at  such 
designs,  and  this  He  shows  now,  by  refusing  us  a  fair  wind." 
To  quell  these  murmurs,  William  had  the  bones  of  St.  Valery 
(a  famous  French  saipt)  carried  in  procession  through  the 
camp  on  the  sea-shore.  Prayers  were  made  to  the  saint,  and 
the  soldiers,  believing  in  his  intercession,  grew  more  hopeful. 
The  next  day  the  wind  became  favorable,  and  the  Norman 
fleet  sailed  for  the  English  coast.  From  Duke  William's 
vessel,  the  gift  of  his  wife  (the  Countess  Matilda),  floated  the 
pope's  consecrated  banner,  surmounted  by  a  cross.  The  silken 
sails  were  of  many  bright  colors,  parts  of  the  ship  were  gilt, 
and  the  Three  Lions  of  Normandy,  the  duke's  arms,  were  em- 
blazoned in  many  places.  On  the  prow  was  the  figure  of  a 
child,  holding  a  drawn  bow,  the  arrow  pointing,  with  the 
ship's  head,  towards  the  English  coast. 

On  the  28th  September,  1066,  this  formidable  fleet 

1066.  1  >  ' 

cast  anchor  off  the  shores  of  Sussex.  As  William 
stepped  on  shore,  he  fell,  but  recovering  himself  instantly, 
prevented  the  superstitious  fears  of  his  army,  by  crying  out, 
showing  them  a  handful  of  English  sand,  ''  See,  I  have  taken 
possession  of  the  land  by  my  hands,  and  as  far  as  it  extends  it 
is  mine, — it  is  yours."  The  Norman  army  lay  in  their  camp 
near  Hastings,  and  William,  the  duke,  took  up  his  quarters  in 
the  old  Roman  castle  at  Pevensey. 

Let  us  leave  them  here,  and  turn  to  the  preparations  which 
King  Harold  was  making  to  resist  this  great  army.  Before 
WilHam  began  to  make  ready  for  the  invasion  of  England,  he 


THE  LAST  OF  THE  SAXON  KINGS.  41 

sent  to  Harold,  reminding  him  of  his  outh,  and  demanding  its 
fulfihnent.  Harold  simply  replied  :  "  It  is  true  that  I  made 
an  oath  to  William,  but  I  made  it  under  the  influence  of  force; 
I  promised  that  which  belongs  not  to  me,  and  engaged  to  do 
what  I  never  could  do ;  for  my  royalty  is  not  miue,  nor  can  I 
dispose  of  it  without  the  consent  of  my  country." 

Harold  prepared  to  do  battle  for  his  crown.  William  was 
not  his  only  enemy.  A  treacherous  brother,  named  Tostig, 
who  had  been  banished  from  England,  now  sought  revenge. 
Aided  by  William  the  Norman,  and  accompanied  by  Harold 
Hardrada,  a  king  of  Norway,  he  landed,  September  108G,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  York.  Hardrada  was  the  last  of  that 
race  of  Vikingirs,  who  had  for  so  many  centuries  been  the 
terror  of  England. 

To  encounter  this  enemy,  King  Harold  marched  northward, 
leaving  the  southern  coast,  wdiere  the  storm  of  war  was  so  soon 
to  burst,  exposed  to  all  its  fury.  Before  the  battle,  wdiich  was 
fought  at  Stamford  Bridge,  the  English  king  sent  to  Tostig, 
offering  him  peace,  friendship,  and  restoration  to  his 
ancient  honors.  "  And  what  territory  would  Harold 
give  to  my  ally,  Hardrada,  king  of  Norway  V  asked  Tostig. 
"  Seven  feet  of  English  ground  for  a  grave ;  or  a  little  more, 
seeing  that  Hardrada  is  taller  than  most  men,"  answered  the 
herald.  ^*  Bide  back,  ride  back,  and  bid  King  Harold  make 
ready  for  the  fight !  When  the  Northmen  tell  the  story  of 
this  day,  they  shall  never  say  that  Earl  Tostig  forsook  King 
Hardrada,  the  son  of  Sigurd.  He  and  I  have  one  mind,  and 
one  resolve,  and  that  is,  either  to  die  in  battle,  or  to  possess 
all  England."  They  kept  their  resolve.  Both  were  slain  on 
the  battle-field,  and  their  army  was  driven  from  the  land. 
Scarcely  had  Harold  gained  this  victory,  when  news  came  that 
William,  duke  of  Normandy,  had  landed  in  England.  He 
turned  with  his  army  southward.  And  now,  as  the  year  drew 
near  its  close,  the  great  battle  was  to  be  fought,  which  should 
decide  whether  the  Norman  duke  or  the  Saxon  earl  should 
wear  the  crown  of  England. 

King  Harold's  standard  was  planted  on  the  spot  where 
4* 


42  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

Battle  Abbey  afterwards  arose  to  commemorate  this  fight. 
Around  it  gathered  brave  English  hearts.  On  Saturday,  the 
14th  October,  the  action  began.  The  Normans  advanced, 
singing  the  war-songs  of  ancient  heroes,  and  raising  their 
battle-cry,  "  Our  Lady  !  Our  Lady  !  God  is  our  help  I"  The 
English  drove  them  back  with  shouts  of  '^  Christ's  Eood  !  the 

Holy  Eood!"  For  nine  long  hours  the  battle  lasted; 
^10*66*'  ^^"^  fierce,  fierce  battle  between   Saxon   and  Norman, 

for  the  crown  of  England.  When  the  sun  went  down, 
the  brave  Harold  had  fallen,  and  the  banner  of  Duke  William, 
"the  Three  Lions  of  Normandy,"  floated  triumphant  over  the 
bloody  field  of  victory.  The  battle  of  Hastings  had  been 
fought,  and  the  Norman  conquest  was  begun. 

Questions. — Who  succeeded  Edward  the  Confessor? — Describe 
the  conduct  of  the  Norman  duke  when  he  heard  of  Harold's  acces- 
sion.— How  was  William's  project  of  invasion  received  by  his  sub- 
jects?— Relate  the  attempts  made  to  overcome  this  opposition,  with 
their  result. — What  tokens  of  approbation  did  William  receive  from 
the  Pope? — Describe  the  preparations  for  the  invasion. — By  what 
was  it  delayed? — What  means  did  the  Norman  duke  employ  to  allay 
the  fears  of  his  ai'my  ? 

Describe  the  vessel  in  which  William  embarked. — Relate  the  inci- 
dent which  occurred  on  his  landing. — Where  did  the  Norman  army 
encamp? — How  had  King  Harold  replied  to  William's  demand  of  the 
crown? — Against  what  other  enemy  had  Harold  to  combat? — Relate 
the  circumstances  of  this  encounter,  and  its  result. — When  was  the 
battle  of  Hastings  fought  ? — Describe  the  advance  of  both  armies. — 
How  did  it  terminate  ? 


CONDITION   OF   ENGLAND   UNDER   THE   SAXONS.  43 


CHAPTER  VII. 

CONDITION  or  ENGLAND  UNDER  THE  SAXONS. 

RELIGION — LITERATURE — MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS. 

Let  us  now  glance  at  the  condition  of  the  Saxon  people  at 
the  time  of  the  Norman  conquest.  First,  as  regards  religion : 
the  pure  light  of  Christianity  had  become  dim  by  the  corrupt 
practices  of  an  age  of  superstition.  Fasting  and  penance,  or 
the  infliction  of  suffering  on  the  body,  was  too  often  inculcated 
in  the  place  of  that  scriptural  repentance  which  leads  to  godly 
sorrow  for  sin  and  amendment  of  life.  The  building  of  a 
church  or  monastery,  or  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  atoned,  it  was 
believed,  for  the  darkest  crimes.  Thus  the  wicked  Elfrida, 
the  mother  of  King  Ethelred  the  Unready,  in  her  old  age, 
founded  churches  and  monasteries,  to  make  amends  for  the 
sins  of  her  former  life.  Thus,  too,  Canute,  the  Dane  king, 
went  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  because  his  soul  was  troubled 
with  remorse  for  the  blood  which  he  had  shed,  and  the  crimes 
which  he  had  committed.  Robbing  the  English  people  of 
their  money  to  bestow  in  alms  on  foreign  churches,  with 
pilgrim's  wallet  and  staff,  he  found  his  way  to  Italy.  The 
treasures  he  brought  back  with  him  were,  the  bones  of  dead 
saints,  and  ^'  holy  relics," — such  as  the  arm  of  St,  Augustine, 
for  which  he  had  paid  one  hundred  talents  of  gold,  and  the 
same  amount  of  silver.  The  monks  pretended  to  work  mira- 
cles. The  people  were  taught  to  call  upon  the  saints,  for  aid 
and  intercession.  The  word  of  God,  whose  entrance  giveth 
light,  was  shut  up  from  the  laity  in  a  foreign  tongue. 

Dunstan,  the  abbot  of  Glastonbury  (afterwards  Primate  of 
England),  was,  both  in  his  accomplishments  and  the  means 
by  which  he  gained  his  reputation  for  sanctity,  a  fair  specimen 
of  the  monk  of  this  age.     He  was  a  fine  musician,  a  painter, 


44  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

well  skilled  in  the  arts  of  design,  an  illuminator  of  the  beauti- 
ful manuscripts  of -that  period,  and  practised  in  the  arts  of  the 
jeweller  and  blacksmith.  He  gained  the  character  of  a  saint 
by  living  in  a  cell  so  small  that  he  could  not  lie  down  in  it  at 
full  length,  and  by  subsisting  on  the  coarsest  and  most  meagre 
fare.  When,  by  these  means,  combined  with  his  natural 
talents  for  command,  he  had  risen  to  power  and  influence,  he 
proclaimed  himself  a  reformer  of  the  church.  This  reforma- 
tion consisted  in  obliging  those  priests  who  were  married 
(secular  clergy  they  were  called)  to  put  away  their  wives, 
abandon  their  families,  and  go  to  live  in  monasteries,  like  the 
monks  or  regulars.  The  quarrel  between  these  two  parties 
was  long  and  bitter.  Gradually,  the  monks  prevailed,  but  it 
was  not  until  after  the  twelfth  century,  that  celibacy  became 
the  general  practice  of  the  Church. 

In  those  dark  times  of  superstition,  it  is  pleasant  to  dwell 
upon  a  spot  illuminated  by  the  pure  light  of  the  gospel. 
Such  seems  to  have  been  the  little  rocky  island  of  lona,  on 
the  western  coast  of  Scotland.  There,  in  the  sixth  century, 
St.  Columba,  an  Irish  monk,  founded  a  monastery,  and  estab- 
lished a  little  colony  of  Christians.  There  they  lived,  owning 
no  subjection  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  only  preaching 
"  such  works  of  charity  and  piety  as  they  could  learn  from 
Holy  Scriptures."     The  clergy  were  called  Culdees. 

Although  monasteries  and  convents  were  in  many  instances 
places  where  idle  and  even  wicked  lives  were  led,  yet  were 
they  very  frequently  sanctuaries  for  the  oppressed,  and  the 
only  refuge  in  those  rude  times  for  the  weak  and  defenceless. 
Nor  must  we  forget  that  to  the  life-long  labor  of  many  a  monk, 
we  owe  the  books  which  have  come  down  to  our  times.  Every 
monastery  had  its  writing-room,  and  there  copies  of  ancient 
works  were  transcribed  on  sheets  of  vellum  or  parchment. 
Paper  was  not  then  invented,  and  as  parchment  was  costly, 
the  previous  writing  was  sometimes  effaced  to  make  room  for 
the  new.  Many  a  time,  in  this  way,  some  old  and  precious 
manuscript  may  have  been  erased,  to  give  place  to  lives  of 


CONDITION  OF  ENGLAND  UNDER  THE  SAXONS.    40 

saints,  or  tales  of  miracles.  Often  the  long  lifetime  of  a 
monk  would  be  spent  in  copying  and  illuminating  a  single 
book.  These  copies  and  illuminations  were  very  beautiful. 
We  hear  of  the  gospels  impressed  in  silver  letters  upon 
violet-colored  parchment,  and  of  other  books,  bound  in  gold, 
silver,  and  jewels,  with  "relics  of  saints  set  in  the  silver  frame 
work  of  the  pages."  Of  course,  books  written  with  such  labor 
were  very  costly.  They  were  as  valuable,  and  were  looked 
after  with  as  much  care,  as  a  farm  would  be  in  our  days,  and 
the  fortune  of  a  king  could  scarcely  buy  as  much  reading  as 
may  now  be  found  in  a  child's  library. 

The  monasteries  were  the  schools  of  those  days.  There 
Latin  and  Greek  were  taught,  as  well  as  astronomy  and  theol- 
ogy. In  painting,  music,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  the 
monks  were  well  skilled.  Westminster  Abbey  rose  in  the 
days  of  Edward  the  Confessor.  To  the  building  of  this  mag- 
nijQcent  structure,  which  was  the  pride  of  his  heart,  the  Saint- 
king  devoted  a  tenth  of  his  revenue ;  but  he  scarcely  lived  to 
see  it  completed,  and  was  the  first  of  that  long  line  of  English 
monarchs  who  have  been  laid  to  rest  within  its  walls. 

At  Christmas,  at  Easter,  and  at  Whitsuntide,  the  Saxon 
kings  summoned  the  great  council  of  the  nation.  It  was 
called  the  AVitenagemot.  To  this,  years  after,  succeeded  the 
parliament  of  England.  In  the  Witenagemot  were  gathered 
the  clergy  and  nobles  of  the  kingdom,  greater  or  less,  whether 
Dane  or  Saxon ;  the  kings  and  chiefs  of  tribes,  who  paid  tri- 
bute to  the  crown,  were  there  also;  last,  but  not  least,  the 
ceorls,  the  people,  had  their  representatives  in  the  magistrates 
of  the  burghs  or  towns.  In  the  Witan  (as  the  name  is  often 
abbreviated),  but  more  frequently  in  lesser  courts,  the  people 
were  tried  who  were  accused  of  crimes.  If  the  criminal  could 
procure  a  certain  number  of  friends,  of  a  stated  amount  of 
property,  to  swear  with  him  to  his  innocence,  he  was  acquitted. 
If  he  could  not  find  such  witnesses,  he  committed  his  cause  to 
"the  appeal  to  heaven,"  or  "trial  by  ordeal,"  as  it  was  called. 
This  consisted  in  plunging  his  arm  into  boiling  water,  holding 


46  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

red-liot  iron  in  his  hand,  or  walking  over  burning  plough- 
shares. If,  at  the  end  of  three  days,  no  sign  of  injury  was 
found  upon  the  criminal,  he  was  declared  innocent.  Very 
likely  those  who  survived  these  ordeals  had  discovered  some 
means  of  preparing  their  bodies,  so  that  they  should  not  feel 
the  heat  of  the  iron  or  the  water.  In  those  rude  times,  men 
often  fought  out  their  quarrels  This  spirit  is  illustrated  by 
the  words  which  Shakspeare  places  in  the  mouth  of  Macduff, 
when  the  latter  heard  of  the  surprise  of  his  castle,  and  murder 
of  his  wife  and  little  ones — 

**  Let  us  make  medicines  of  our  great  revenge, 
To  cure  this  deadly  grief." 

It  was  in  the  days  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  that  the  good 
King  Duncan  of  Scotland  was  mur4ered;  a  deed  made  famous 
by  the  great  English  dramatist,  in  his  play  of  Macbeth. 
The  son  of  Duncan  fled  to  the  English  coast,  and  was  "  re- 
ceived of  the  most  pious  Edward''  with  much  favor.  He 
subsequently  married  Margaret,  a  granddaughter  of  Edmund 
Ironsides. 

The  Saxons  cared  much  more  for  good  living  than  for  fine 
houses.  Their  dwellings  were  made  of  wood.  They  had  no 
chimneys,  the  smoke  being  allowed  to  escape  through  a  hole 
in  the  roof.  In  the  windows  of  the  rich,  glass  had  taken  the 
place  of  the  lattice  work,  or  linen  blind.  The  floors  were  car- 
peted with  rushes.  The  walls  were  hung  with  tapestry,  or 
silken  curtains,  richly  embroidered  in  needlework  of  gold  or 
colored  thread.  In  this  art,  the  women  of  that  age  excelled. 
We  hear  of  an  embroidered  curtain  presented  by  an  English 
lady  to  a  church,  on  which  was  wrought  a  representation  of  the 
siege  of  Troy.  On  the  famous  roll,  known  as  the  Bayeux 
Tapestry,  is  wrought,  in  woolleu  threads  of  various  colors,  a 
complete  picture  representation  of  the  Norman  conquest. 
This  roll  is  of  linen,  twenty  inches  in  breadth  and  two  hun- 
dred and  fourteen  feet  in  length.  It  is  still  kept  in  the  town 
house  of  Bayeux. 


CONDITION   OF   ENGLAND   UNDER   THE   SAXONS.  47 

The  furniture  of  a  Saxon  dwelling  was  simple.  Stools, 
Ibenches,  and  settles  were  used,  instead  of  chairs.  These  were 
made,  as  were  also  the  tables,  of  wood  curiously  carved.  The 
English  silversmiths  were  especially  famous  for  their  delicate 
workmanship,  and  on  the  tables  of  the  rich  were  found  cups, 
vases,  and  dishes  of  gold  and  silver,  beautifully  wrought..  The 
comMon  people  used  dishes  of  wood,  horn,  and  bone.  Glass 
vessels  were  not  commonly  found,  and  their  place  was  supplied 
by  drinking-horns,  rimmed  and  ornamented  with  silver. 

The  Saxons  were  extravagant  eaters.  Four  meals  a  day  was 
the  allowance  of  all  who  could  aiFord  it.  They  became,  after 
their  connection  with  the  Danes,  immoderate  drinkers  too.  So 
prevalent  had  this  vice  become  in  the  days  of  King  Edgar, 
that  he  caused  drinking-horns  to  be  made  with  knobs  of  brass 
at  certain  distances  from  each  other,  and  commanded  that  no 
guest  should  be  compelled,  at  one  draught,  to  drink  more  than 
from  one  knob  to  the  next.  The  tables  were  covered  with 
cloths  so  large,  that  they  could  be  spread  over  the  knees  of 
the  guests,  and  used  as  napkins.  The  meats  were  served  on 
small  spits,  by  kneeling  attendants.  At  festal  meals  the  harp 
was  handed  from  guest  to  guest,  each  being  expected  to  con- 
tribute a  song  or  a  strain  for  the  general  entertainment. 

The  dress  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  women  consisted  of  a  linen 
tunic,  fitting  close  at  the  throat,  having  tight  sleeves,  and 
richly  embroidered  hems  and  borders.  A  loose  garment,  with 
flowing  sleeves,  was  frequently  thrown  over  the  tunic.  On 
the  head,  and  enveloping  the  neck,  was  worn  a  veil  of  linen  or 
silk.  Men  wore  tunics  of  linen  or  woollen,  descending  to  the 
knees,  and  fastened  by  a  belt  at  the  waist.  These  garments, 
too,  had  fine  borders.  Over  this  was  worn  a  cloak,  fastened 
by  a  ring  or  brooch  on  the  shoulder.  The  tunics  of  the  lower 
classes  were  often  made  of  hide.  On  the  legs  were  worn  linen 
or  woollen  stockings,  crossed  with  strips  of  cloth,  linen,. or 
leather.  Over  the  dress  was  often  worn  chains  and  crosses, 
and  the  belts,  frequently  of  gold  and  silver,  were  studded  with 
jewels. 


48  HISTORY    UF    ENGLAND. 

The  amusements  of  the  Saxons  were  of  an  exciting  nature. 
The  thanes,  or  nobles,  delighted  in  hunting  and  hawking, 
whilst  the  ceorl  enjoyed  bear-baiting,  the  feats  of  the  tumbler 
and  the  juggler,  and  the  song  of  the  gleeman  and  minstrel. 
More  quiet  spirits  delighted  in  games,  such  as  chess,  dice, 
and  backgammon.  The  latter  is  said  to  take  its  name  from 
two  Welsh  words,  signifying  little  hattle.  • 

At  the  time  of  the  Norman  conquest,  the  city  of  London 
was  a  very  humble  town :  the  streets  were  narrow  and  wind- 
ing, and  here  and  there,  at  frequent  intervals,  the  eye  rested 
on  the  verdure  and  foliage  of  the  beautiful  gardens  of  the 
convents,  which  arose  in  every  direction ;  the  houses  were  of 
wood,  and  wooden  towers  crowned  the  low  thatched  or  reeded 
roofs  of  the  churches.  Tall  crosses  and  images  of  saints 
marked  the  intersection  of  the  ways,  which  custom  may  yet  be 
traced  in  the  names  of  the  present  thoroughfares  Rood-Lane 
and  Lady-Lane.  Portions  of  the  metropolis  now  so  populous, 
were  then  the  humble  villages  of  Southwark,  Charing,  Lam- 
beth, St.  Giles,  St  Pancras,  &c.,  around  and  beyond  which 
stretched  orchards  and  fields,  surrounding  the  Scattered  dwell- 
ings of  the  wealthy  Saxon  merchant  and  citizen. 

London  was  not  then  the  capital  of  England.  Winchester 
was  the  favorite  city  of  the  Saxon  monarchs,  but  they  held 
court  as  they  listed,  in  various  places  of  the  realm.  In  the 
Easter  of  1053,  King  Edward  the  Confessor  wore  his  crown 
in  the  little  village  of  Windshore,  now  Windsor.  Through 
the  same  fair  landscape  still 

"Wanders  the  hoary  Thames  along 
His  silver  winding  way,'" 

but  the  placid  waters  reflect  not  now  the  humble  palace  of 

800  years  ago. 

"From  the  stately  brow 
Of  Windsor's  heights" 

frown  down  the  proud  towers  of  the  Castle,  and  in  that  truly 


CONDITION   OP  ENGLAND   UNDER  THE   SAXONS.  49 

regal  residence,  Queen  Victoria  may  hold  her  court,  surrounded 
by  a  pomp  and  splendor,  of  which  her  royal  Saxon  predeces- 
sors never  dreamed. 

Questions. — Mention  some  of  the  characteristics  of  the  religion 
of  this  century. — Repeat  the  illustrations  given  in  the  conduct  of 
Elfrida,  Canute,  and  Dunstan. — Who  were  the  Culdees  ? — Mention 
some  of  the  benefits  conferred  by  the  monasteries. — How  were  lite- 
rature and  the  arts  profited  by  them  ? 

Of  whom  was  the  great  council  of  the  realm  composed  ? — Repeat 
the  account  of  a  Saxon  criminal  trial. — What  was  the  frequent 
method  of  settling  disputes  ? — Mention  the  instance  cited  in  proof 
of  this. 

Describe  the  houses  and  furniture  of  the  Saxons. — What  is  said 
of  their  meals  and  habits  at  table  ? — What  were  the  costumes  of  the 
men  and  women  of  this  period? — What  amusements  were  practised? 
— Describe  London  as  it  existed  in  Saxon  times. 


50  HISTORY   OF  ENGLAND. 


PART  III. 

THE  NORMAN  CONQUEST. 

A.  D.  1066—1100. 

•*  'Then,'  cried  the  Saxon  soldiers,  'in  vain  are  mace  and  mail, 
We  fall  before  the  Normans  as  corn  before  the  hail.' 
'And  vainly,'  cried  the  pious  monks,  'by  Mary's  shrine  we  kneel, 
For  prayers,  like  arrows,  glance  aside,  against  the  Norman  steel.'  " 
Altered  from ''TuE  Ballad  OF  B.OV." 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

WILLIAM   THE   CONQUEROR. 

last  struggles  op  the  saxons — norman  ascendancy — close  op  the 
conqueror's  LIPB. 

The  battle  of  Hastings  was  fought  in  October.  Two 
months  passed  by  ere  William  ventured  to  London,  to  receive 
tbe  crown  which  that  field  had  won.  At  length,  on  Christmas 
day  of  the  year  1066,  the  Conqueror  stood  in  Westminster 
Abbey.  A  traiji  of  Norman  nobles  and  priests  were  with  him- 
Some  English,  too,  were  there.  First,  a  Norman  bishop  asked 
William's   followers    whether    they   would   have   their   duke 

crowned  king  of  England :  then  Aldred,  the 
106™***  Saxon  archbishop  of  York,  demanded  in  English, 

if  the  people  would  take  William  the  Norman  for 
their  king.  Shouts  of  applause  arose  in  answer  to  both  these 
questions.  The  Conqueror's  horsemen,  outside  of  the  Abbey, 
mistook  them  for  cries  of  alarm  from  their  Norman  friends 
within.  In  hasty  revenge  they  set  fire  to  the  English  houses. 
Amid  the  confusion  which  followed,  William  and  the  arch- 
bishop were  left  trembling  and  almost  alone  before  the  altar. 


WILLIAM  THE   CONQUEROR.  51 

Aldred  placed  the  crown  on  the  brow  of  the  Conqueror,  who, 
in  addition  to  the  usual  coronation  oath,  promised  to  rule  his 
new  subjects  as  well  as  their  best  native  kings  had  done. 

William  had  promised  more  than  he  could  perform.  A 
large  army  of  nobles,  soldiers,  priests,  and  monks  had  come 
with  the  Norman  duke  to  England.  He  had  told  them  that, 
if  they  would  help  him  to  conquer  the  country,  lands,  abbeys, 
churches,  and  treasures  should  be  theirs.  These  greedy 
Norman  followers  were  not  likely  to  Jet  William  forget  his 
promises,  and  how  could  he  keep  them,  without  making  beg- 
gars and  outcasts  of  his  English  subjects  ?  One  man  alone, 
of  all  tha*  Norman  host,  was  found  honest  enough  to  tell  his 
master  that,  ^'  he  desired  not  property  seized  and  stolen  from 
other  men;  that  he  should  go  back  to  Normandy,  there  to 
enjoy  his  humble  but  rightful  heritage,  and  rest  content  with 
his  own  lot,  without  coveting  the  wealth  of  others.''  The 
name  of  this  man  was  Guilbert  Fitz-Ricliard. 

Saxon  England  was  not  to  become  the  prey  of  the  Norman 
conqueror,  until  after  a  long  and  hard  struggle.  When  Wil- 
liam was  crowned  king,  his  dominions  did  not  extend  as  far 
north  as  the  city  of  Oxford,  nor  as  far  west  as  that  of 
Exeter. 

In  1067,  William  visited  his  duchy  of  Normandy.  During 
his  absence,  his  harsh  brother.  Bishop  Odo,  so  oppressed  the 
English,  that  they  rose  against  the  Normans.  William  came 
back,  and  then  began  what  may  be  called  the  real  conquest  of 
England.     It  was  a  contest  of  seven  years'  duration. 

Exeter,  Oxford,  Warwick,  Leicester,  Derby,  Not- 
tingham, Lincoln,  and  thus  on,  city  after  city  was 
taken.  Norman  castles,  manned  with  knights  and  soldiers, 
arose  all  over  the  country :  the  fortresses,  the  garrisons,  the 
houses  of  Saxon  lords,  were  given  to  Normans  :  the  churches, 
the  monasteries,  and  the  abbeys  were  filled  with  Norman 
priests.  Numbers  of  English  wandered  away  to  foreign  lands; 
many  in  later  days  became  crusaders,  and  very  many  fled  as 
outlaws  to  the  woods  and  forests.     Thus  •'  Merry  England," 


52  HISTORY   OP  ENGLAND. 

as  the  Saxons  before  the  conquest  delighted  to  call  their 
country,  was  filled  with  sorrow  and  desolation. 

Between  the  H  umber  and  the  Tweed,  in  the  old  land  of  the 
Danelagh,  English  and  Dane  together  made  a  desperate  resist- 
ance. William  marched  into  Northumbria,  and  after  a  bloody 
victory,  entered  the  city  of  York  with  fire  and  sword,  and  left 
there  a  well-garrisoned  citadel.  In  less  than  a  year  the 
English,  aided  by  Scotch  and  Danes,  laid  siege  to  York.  The 
citadel  was  strong,  and  for  seven  days  the  Norman 

1069.  *'  .  -^ 

garrison  held  out.  On  the  eighth  day  they  set  the 
town  on  fire ;  the  famous  and  beautiful  York  Minster,  with  its 
library,  was  burned :  three  thousand  Normans  were  killed,  and 
the  English  army  entered  the  ruined  city. 

William  was  in  one  of  his  hunting  forests,  when  news  of 
this  victory  reached  him.  All  his  wicked  passions  were 
aroused  :  he  swore  a  fearful  oath,  that  he  would  ravage  the 
Danelagh  with  fire  and  sword,  and  utterly  destroy  the  North- 
umbrian people.  He  kept  this  wicked  vow.  Eighty  years 
after  that  time,  an  historian,  writing  of  that  district,  says : 
*'  From  York  to  Durham  not  an  inhabited  village  remained. 
Fire,  slaughter,  and  desolation  made  a  vast  wilderness  there, 
which  continues  to  this  day."  From  the  Humber  to  the 
Tyne,  all  was  a  lonesome  desert.  The  miseries  of  the  wretched 
Saxons  who  escaped  the  fire  and  sword  were  extreme.  Many 
starved  to  death;  some  wandered  into  Scotland;  others  joined 
the  outlaws  of  the  forests ;  and  many,  in  utter  despair,  sold 
themselves,  their  wives,  and  children,  as  slaves  to  the  Con- 
queror's soldiers. 

On  the  little  isle  of  Ely,  amid  the  bogs  and  marshes  of 
"fenny  Lincoln,"  was  made  the  last  stand  for  Saxon  freedom. 
In  this  region  stood  the  old  and  greatly  revered  English 
abbeys  of  Ely,  Thorney,  Peterborough,  and  Croyland.  Here 
Hereward,  whom  his  countrymen  fondly  named  "  England's 
darling,"  gathered  all  the  brave  spirits  whom  the  fear  of  the 
Conqueror  had  not  yet  been  able  to  subdue,  and  for  three 
months  kept  the  Norman  soldiers  at  bay.    At  length  treachery 


WILLIAM   THE   CONQUEROR.  53 

betrayed  this  last  stronghold.  The  monks  of  Ely,  weary  of 
long  privations,  guided  William's  men  across  the  marshes  to 
Hereward's  camp  of  refuge.  The  usual  scenes  followed : — 
cruel  murder,  robbery,  and  outlawry.  Hereward  escaped,  and, 
with  a  few  friends,  for  a  time  kept  up  the  struggle.  At  last, 
seeing  its  hopelessness,  he  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
WilHam. 

The  Norman  Conquest  was  finished ;  at  least  as  far 
as  holding  possession  of  the  land  was  concerned.  The 
country  was  divided  among  William's  Norman  followers.  To 
one  lord  was  given  twenty-eight  villages.  Earl  Percy  had 
eighty  manors  and  more  bestowed  on  him.  On  the  banks  of 
the  Swale,  in  Yorkshire,  a  Norman  chief  built  the  castle,  and 
founded  the  town  of  Richmond.  Another,  Gilbert  de  Lacy, 
erected  the  strong  castle  of  Pontefract. 

New  abbeys  and  churches  were  founded,  and  the  old  ones 
were  given  to  foreign  churchmen.  Norman  prelates  and 
priests  were  as  grasping  and  cruel  as  Norman  knights  and 
soldiers.  When  the  Conqueror  died,  but  one  Saxon  bishop 
held  his  place  in  the  English  Church.  This  was  Wulfstan, 
bishop  of  Worcester.  He  was  an  old  man  when  summoned 
to  Westminster  Abbey,  before  a  meeting  of  Norman  priests. 
They  told  him  he  must  give  up  his  bishopric,  not  because  he 
was  an  unfaithful  pastor,  but  because  he  could  not  speak  the 
French  language.  Instead  of  yielding  up  his  crozier  (the  sign 
of  his  office)  to  the  Norman  prelates,  the  venerable  bishop 
marched  to  the  tomb  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  thus 
solemnly  addressed  the  spirit  of  the  dead  king:  ^^ Master, 
not  to  them,  who  recall  what  they  did  not  give,  and  who  may 
deceive  and  be  deceived,  but  to  thee,  who  gave  them,  and  art 
now  raised  above  all  error,  I  resign  my  staff,  and  surrender 
my  flock."  Then,  laying  on  the  saint-king's  tomb  his  pastoral 
staff,  he  seated  himself  as  a  simple  monk  among  his  brethren. 
This  strangely-solemn  resignation  the  Normans  dared  not 
accept,  and,  until  his  death,  Wulfstan  remained  bishop  of 
Worcester. 

Although  "W^illiam  had  divided  England  among  his  Normap 
5* 


64  llISTURi'    OF    ENGLAND.  * 

followers,  they  were  not  content,  or  else  they  hated  him  on 
account  of  his  tyranny.  While  he  was  absent  in  his 
duchy  of  Normandy,  the  Norman  nobles,  whom  he  had 
left  in  England,  aided  by  some  of  the  English,  entered  into  a 
conspiracy.  William  had  left  Lanfranc,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, to  govern  in  his  absence.  This  prelate,  although  more 
than  ninety  years  old,  acted  with  such  vigor,  that  the  rebellion 
was  put  down  before  William  had  recrossed  the  Channel. 

The  English  who  had  engaged  in  it  were  more  severely 
punished  than  the  Normans.  The  fate  of  Waltheof,  son  of 
the  brave  Earl  Siward,  is  a  striking  instance  of  this.  He  had 
married  a  niece  of  the  Conqueror,  and  was  one  of  the  few 
Saxon  thanes  on  whom  had  been  bestowed  power  and  estates. 
The  Norman  barons  who  plotted  against  William  sought  to 
engage  Waltheof  in  their  conspiracy,  but  the  clear-headed 
Saxon  earl,  foreseeing  the  hopelessness  of  the  rebellion,  would 
take  no  part  in  it.  All  that  the  conspirators  could  obtain 
from  him  was  an  oath  of  .secrecy.  He,  however,  imparted  his 
knowledge  to  his  wife,  and  she  betrayed  him  to  his  enemies, 
by  whom  he  was  put  to  death. 

The  wicked  Judith  thus  sacrificed  her  husband  in  the  hope 
that  on  becoming  a  widow  she  might  marry  a  Norman  nobleman 
of  whom  she  was  enamored.  The  Conqueror  however  refused 
to  bestow  her  hand  as  she  desired,  and,  on  her  rejection  of  the 
match  which  he  had  provided  for  her,  deprived  her  of  all  the 
jBstates  of  Siward,  and  left  her  penniless  upon  the  world. 
Hated  and  shunned  by  all,  'Hhe  infamous  Judith,"  as  nearly 
all  the  chroniclers  call  her,  wandered  from  place  to  place, 
seeking  to  hide  her  shame  and  misery  in  the  most  secluded 
corners  of  the  land. 
j^yy  The  close  of  William's  life  and  reign  was  made 
to  unhappy  by  quarrels  among  his  own  children.  He 
had  three  sons  :  Robert,  a  reckless,  extravagant  youth, 
a  great  favorite  with  his  mother,  Matilda;  William,  surnamed 
Rufus,  or  Red,  from  the  color  of  his  hair;  and  Henry,  called 
Beauclerc,  or  Fine  Scholar.  Robert,  now  that  his  father  had 
become  king  of  England,  demanded  the  duchy  of  Normandy, 


WILLIAM    THE   CONQUEROR.  55 

and  this  being  refused,  the  undutiful  son  went  to  war  with  his 
parent.  In  spite  of  all  Matilda's  efforts  to  make  peace  between 
them,  this  war  lasted  with  but  little  intermission  throughout 
William's  reign. 

The  Conqueror  met  his  death  in  a  fearful  manner.  He  was 
warring  against  the  king  of  France,  and,  with  his  accustomed 
cruelty,  rode  with  fire  and  sword  through  one  of  the  beautiful 
provinces  of  that  country.  It  was  harvest  time:  the  ripe 
grapes  hung  in  rich  clusters  on  the  vine,  and  the  yellow  grain 
waved  its  golden  sheaves;  but  nought  save  revenge  moved  the 
heart  of  William.  He  made  his  cavalry  trample  down  the 
grain-fields,  and  ordered  his  soldiers  to  root  up  the  vines,  and 
to  cut  down  the  trees.  The  city  of  Mantes  he  laid  in  ashes. 
As  he  rode  into  the  burning  town,  his  horse,  stepping  on  the 
hot  embers,  plunged,  throwing  William  on  the  pommel  of  the 
saddle,  and  giving  him  a  severe  bruise.  The  injury  was 
mortal. 

In  the  monastery  (5f  St.  Gervas,  near  his  ducal  city 
of  Rouen,  the  Conqueror  passed  the  few  weeks  of  life 
which  remained.  Remorse  at  last  visited  the  heart  of  the 
dying  man.  He  gave  money  to  rebuild  the  ruins  of  Mantes. 
Large  sums  were  sent  over  to  English  churches  and  monaste- 
ries, to  atone  for  the  robberies  he  had  there  committed,  and  in 
his*  last  hours  he  consented  to  set  free  the  unhappy  captives, 
English  and  Norman,  some  of  whom  had  languished  in  his 
dungeons  for  twenty  years. 

Of  his  sons,  Robert  Was  wandering  among  foreign  princes, 
and  only  William  Rufus  and  Henry  were  near  the  death-bed 
of  their  father,  anxiously  waiting  to  hear  his  last  will.  To 
Robert  he  left  the  duchy  of  Normandy :  of  the  English  crown, 
he  declared  it  was  not  his  to  bequeath,  since  he  gained  it  not 
by  inheritance,  but  by  the  sword.  He  expressed,  however,  a 
wish  that  William  Rufus  might  wear  it.  "  And  what  do  you 
give  to  me,  O  my  father?"  said  Prince  Henry.  ^'  Five  thou- 
sand pounds  weight  of  silver  from  my  treasury,"  replied  the 
king.    No  sooner  had  the  sons  heard  these  words,  than,  leaving 


66  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

their  dying  father,  they  hurried  away;  the  one  to  England,  to 
look  after  his  kingdom,  and  the  other,  to  secure  his  money  in 
a  strong  box. 

On  the  morning  of  the  9th  of  September,  as  the  bells  of  a 
neighboring  church  were  ringing  the  hour  of  prime,*  William 
breathed  his  last.  William  the  Great  was  duke  of  Normandy 
and  king  of  England,  but  the  mighty  Conqueror  had  not  won 
a  single  loving  heart,  to  stay  near  and  soothe  him  in  his  dying 
hour.  Nobles  and  knights  took  horse  and  went  their  ways  to 
look  after  their  own  interests ;  the  very  menials,  after  robbing 
the  chamber  of  everything  valuable,  fled,  leaving  the  dead 
body  of  the  monarch  lying  on  the  bare  floor.  Thus  it  lay  for 
three  hours. 

At  length  the  archbishop  of  Rouen  ordered  that  the 
body  should  be  taken  to  Caen,  and  buried  in  a  church 
which  William  had  founded  there.  But  who  should  take 
charge  of  the  last  rites : — his  children,  his  kindred,  and  his 
followers  had  all  fled,  and  none  "was  found  but  a  poor  knight, 
who  "out  of  his  natural  good-nature  and  for  the  love  of  God," 
charged  himself  with  the  burial.  When  the  remains  reached 
Caen,  a  procession  was  formed  to  convey  them  to  the  church 
of  St.  Stephen's.  But  a  fire  breaking  out  in  the  town,  the 
body  was  left  to  the  care  of  a  few  monks,  whilst  the  rest  of  the 
funeral  train  ran  to  put  out  the  flames.  At  last  the  church 
was  reached.  Abbots  and  monks  assembled.  The  bishop  of 
Evreux  uttered  a  few  words  in  honor  of  the  dead  king,  and 
the  body  was  about  to  be  put  into  the  ground,  when  the 
assembly  were  startled  by  a  voice  exclaiming  in  solemn  tones : 
"  Bishop,  the  man  whom  you  have  praised  was  a  robber;  the 
very  ground  on  which  we  are  standing  is  mine — he  took  it 
from  me  by  violence,  to  build  this  church  on  it.  I  reclaim  it 
as  my  right;  and  in  the  name  of  God  I  forbid  you  to  bury 
him  here,  or  cover  him  with  my  glebe."     The  priests  were 

*  A  service  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  beginning  at  6  o'clock. 
in  the  morning. 


WILLIAM   RUFUS.  67 

obliged  to  pay  sixty  shillings  for  the  ground  in  which,  at  last, 
rested  the  remains  of  William,  duke  of  Normandy,  and  con- 
queror of  England. 

Questions. — Describe  the  coronation  of  William  the  Conqueror. — 
What  demands  were  made  by  William's  followers  ? — Relate  a  single 
instance  of  moderation. — Describe  the  progress  of  the  conquest. — 
What  cities  were  taken  ? — What  was  the  fate  of  the.  Saxons  ? — Relate 
the  success  of  their  resistance  in  the  north. — Describe  William's 
revenge. 

Where  and  by  whom  was  the  last  stand  made  for  freedom  ? — What 
was  its  result? — Mention  the  names  and  portions  of  some  who  shared 
in  the  spoils  of  the  conquest. — Relate  the  conduct  of  Wulfstan,  bishop 
of  Worcester. — By  whom  was  a  rebellion  headed  in  1074,  and  with 
what  result  ? 

Mention  the  troubles  which  embittered  the  close  of  William's  life. 
— Relate  the  incidents  which  led  to  his  death. — How  did  he  endeavor 
to  atone  for  his  crimes? — How  did  he  dispose  of  his  dominions? — 
Describe  the  scene  which  followed  his  decease. — Relate  the  account 
given  of  his  burial. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

WILLIAM   RUFUS. 


THE    CROWN    DISPUTED— TREATMENT    OP    THE    SAXON    RACE— THE     KINQ'S 
DEATH. 

As  William  Rufus,  the  undutiful  son  of  the  Con- 
queror, was  journeying  to  England,  he  heard  of  his 
father's  death.     With  all  speed   he  hurried  to  Winchester, 
seized  the  royal  treasures,  and  persuaded  Lanfranc,  the  aged 
archbishop,  to  place  the  crown  on  his  brow. 

Many  of  the  Normans  who  held  lands  both  in  England  and 
Normandy,  desired  that  one  lord  should  rule  both  countries ; 
and  as  they  hated  William  Rufus,  they  persuaded  Robert  his 
elder  brother  to  claim  the  English  crown,  and  gave  him  the 
aid  of  their  arms.     The  contest  between  the  two  brothers  con- 


to 
1100. 


68  HISTORY  OF   ENGLAND. 

tinued  with  but  little  interruption  for  eight  years.  At  length, 
in  the  year  1096,  Robert,  anxious  to  take  part  in  the  crusades, 
mortgaged  his  duchy  to  William  for  three  or  five  years,  receiv- 
ing in  return  the  sum  of  ten  thousand  marks,  and  departed  for 
the  Holy  Land.  William  was  well  pleased  to  see  his  brother 
engaged  in  this  dangerous  adventure,  from  which  he  might 
never  return,  in  which  case  Normandy  would  fall  to  the 
English  king  in  undisputed  possession. 
j^QQQ  The  same  cruel  wrongs  were  practised  upon  the 
English  in  the  reign  of  William  Rufus  as  in  the  days 
of  the  conquest.  The  hand  of  injustice  fell  heavily 
upon  the  Saxon  church.  "  The  Norman  chief,"  says  Thierry, 
"  whether  clerical  or  lay,  diflfered  only  in  his  garb.  Under 
the  coat  of  mail,  or  under  the  cowl,  he  was  ever  the  foreign 
conqueror — insolent,  harsh,  and  grasping."  The  Saxons  had 
called  their  rich  men  by  a  name  [hlaford]  meaning  'Uhe 
divider  of  bread,"  from  which  has  come  the  modern  English 
title  of  lord.  They  were  thus  named  because  at  their  hospitable 
board  was  provided  bread  and  good  cheer  for  the  peasant. 
But  now  the  Norman  lord  was  a  harsh  master.  Shut  up  in 
his  castle  with  gates  closed  and  barred,  he  came  in  contact 
with  the  Saxon  only  to  rob  or  to  injure  him.  "  There  was  in 
King  William's  days  warre  and  sorrowe  ynow,"  writes  an  old 
Saxon  chronicler.     These  days  came  to  an  end. 

The  evening  of  the  1st  of  August,  in  the  year  1100, 
the  Red  King  spent  at  Malwood  Keep,  a  hunting 
lodge  in  the  New  Forest.  He  waited  for  the  dawn  of  day,  to 
begin  anew  the  pleasures  of  the  chase.  In  the  morning  an 
archer  presented  the  king  six  new  arrows.  Praising  their 
beauty,  William  gave  two  to  his  friend,  Sir  Walter  Tyrrel, 
saying,  *^  Good  weapons  are  due  to  the  sportsman  that  knows 
how  to  make  a  good  use  of  them."  The  remaining  arrows  he 
placed  in  his  own  quiver.  After  a  sumptuous  banquet  the 
chase  began.  The  party,  among  whom  was  Henry,  the  brother 
of  the  king,  were  scattered  through  the  wide  forest,  but  Wil- 
liam and  his  friend  Sir  Walter  hunted  together.  As  the  sun 
was  setting,  a  hart  came  bounding  by,  between  the  king  and 


CHANGES    EFFECTED    BY    THE    CONQUEST.  59 

his  companion.  The  king  drew  his  bow,  but  the  string  broke. 
"  Shoot !  Walter — shoot  I"  cried  the  monarch.  The  arrow  sped 
from  Sir  Walter's  bow,  but  turned  aside  by  glancing  against  a 
tree,  it  lodged,  not  in  the  side  of  the  deer,  but  in  the  heart  of 
the  king.  Sir  Walter  took  horse,  escaped  to  France,  and 
afterwards  went  on  a  crusade. 

The  body  of  William  Rufus  was  found  later  in  the 

1100. 

evening  by  a  charcoal  burner.  Tradition  says  that  ou 
the  spot  where  the  dead  king's  body  lay  had  once  stood  an 
Anglo-Saxon  church. 

Questions. — Relate  the  circumstances  of  William  Rufus's  acces- 
sion.— By  whom  was  his  claim  disputed? — What  withdrew  Robert 
from  the  contest? — Describe  the  treatment  of  the  English  during 
this  reign. — Whence  came  the  title  of  Lord,  and  what  did  it  signify  ? 
— How  did  the  Norman  noble  contrast  with  the  Saxon  lord? — Relate 
the  circumstances  of  the  king's  death. 


CHAPTER  X. 

CHANGES   EFFECTED   BY   THE   CONQUEST. 

THE  FEUDAL  SYSTEM — NEW  FOREST — DOOMSDAY  BOOK — THE  CRUSADES. 

Before  entering  upon  another  century,  it  may  be  well  to 
learn  something  of  the  change  in  the  social  condition  of  the 
people  of  England,  which  was  made  by  the  Norman  conquest. 

When  a  great  chief,  such  as  was  William  of  Normandy, 
conquered  a  country  or  province,  he  considered  himself  the 
owner  of  it.  A  portion  of  the  lands  he  kept  for  himself,  the 
rest  he  divided  among  his  barons,  who  promised  in  return  to 
follow  him  to  battle  whenever  he  should  call  upon  them  for 
such  service.  The  barons  in  their  turn  divided  these  lands 
among  their  followers  in  the  same  manner,  and  on  the  same 
terms.  Such  lands  were  called  fiefs ;  those  who  gave  them 
were  called  feudal  lords,  and  those  who  held  them  were  named 


60  HISTORY    OF    EiNQLAND. 

vassals.  This  holding  of  land  for  military  service,  instead  of 
buying  or  paying  rent  for  it,  is  called  the  Feudal  System,  and 
was  introduced  by  William  the  Conqueror  into  England. 

The  feudatory  relations  of  Hugh,  first  Earl  of  Chester,  may 
be  cited  in  illustration  of  this  system.  When  the  province, 
of  which  the  old  Roman  city  of  Chester  was  the  stronghold, 
had  been  conquered,  William  bestowed  it  upon  a  follower, 
who,  because  he  bore  on  his  shield  the  figure  of  a  wolf's  head, 
was  called  Hugh  Lupus,  or  "  the  Wolf." 

No  sooner  did  the  new  lord  come  into  possession  of  his 
earldom,  than  he  sent  into  Normandy  for  an  old  companion 
named  Lenoir.  The  latter  came,  bringing  no  less  than  five  of 
his  brothers  with  him.  Hugh  conferred  upon  him  the  title 
of  constable  and  hereditary  marshal.  He  gave  him  the  town 
of  Halton ;  granted  him  a  liberal  share  in  the  spoils  which 
should  be  taken  in  battle ;  the  privileges  of  jurisdiction  over 
a  large  district,  and  the  fines  thereof;  the  right  of  pre-emption 
or  first  purchase  in  the  Chester  market  over  all  comers  thereto, 
save  the  servants  of  the  earl ;  the  highway  and  street  tolls  at 
the  fairs  held  in  Chester ;  the  market  dues  of  his  district  of 
Halton,  and  the  liberty  of  selling  free  of  taxation  every  species 
of  merchandise,  excepting  horses  and  salt.  In  return  for  all 
this,  Lenoir  engaged  for  himself  and  his  heirs  to  march  with 
their  retainers  at  the  head  of  the  earl's  armies  in  going  forth 
to  battle,  and  in  returning  to  bring  up  the  rear. 

Lenoir,  in  his  turn,  bestowed  lands  and  privileges,  with  the 
title  of  seneschal,  upon  his  next  brother,  for  service  and 
homage  similar  to  that  which  he  himself  rendered  to  the  earl. 
On  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  brothers,  the  constable 
bestowed  lands  and  manors  in  proportion,  and  the  fifth,  who 
was  a  priest,  received  the  gift  of  a  church. 

Something  like  feudal  tenure  had,  to  a  limited  extent,  been 
known  among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  but  the  first  Norman  king 
established  it  as  a  system.  Those  who  had  been  nobles  among 
the  Saxons  now  became  vassals  to  the  Norman  lords.  At  the 
time  of  the  Conqueror's  death  there  was  scarcely  a  native 
Englishmen  in  the  land  who  held  so  high  a  title  as  earl  or 


CHANGES   EFFECTED   BY  THE   CONQUEST.  61 

baron.  The  most  numerous  class  in  the  nation  were  those 
called  by  the  Saxons,  ceorls,  and  by  the  Normans,  villains. 
They  belonged  to  the  estate  of  the  lord,  and  could  neither 
remove  from  it  of  their  own  will,  nor  yet  be  removed  by  the 
will  of  the  master.  Some  were  entitled  to  the  occupation  of  a 
cottage,  in  which  case  they  were  called  by  the  Saxons,  heorih- 
fastmen:  others  rendered  their  services  in  the  household  of 
their  lord.  Above  the  villains  were  the  freemen,  who  held 
'of  the  Norman  lord  as  free-tenants,  and  were  entitled  to  some 
political  rights,  though  to  none  so  important  as  those  belong- 
ing to  the  tenants-in-chief ^  as  persons  holding  of  the  king  were 
called.  The  lowest  class  in  the  nation,  not  accounted  even  as 
belonging  to  the  people,  were  the  serfs^  or  bondmen,  who  were 
in  every  sense  the  property  of  their  master. 

Among  the  Normans  who  flocked  to  England  during  the 
early  years  of  the  conquest,  were  many  men  of  low  degree. 
Mechanics,  peasants,  and  foot-soldiers  in  Normandy,  assumed, 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Channel,  the  titles  of  nobleman  and 
gentleman.  Whole  families,  obscure  in  birth,  and  destitute 
of  fortune,  from  every  corner  of  France,  made  their  way  into 
the  new  kingdom,  sure  of  finding  there  an  ample  provision  for 
every  member,  at  the  expense  oftentimes  of  the  noblest  of  the 
Saxon  race,  who  were  driven  forth  to  destitution  and  beggary. 

The  following  old  rhyme  satirizes  this  wholesale  immigra- 
tion of  foreign  adventurers : 

"  William  de  Conigsby 
Came  out  of  Brittany 
With  his  wife  Tiffany 
And  his  maide  Maufas 
And  his  dogge  Hardigras." 

Homage  was  required  of  every  vassal.  In  performing  this 
ceremony,  the  vassal,  unarmed  and  with  uncovered  head,  knelt 
before  his  lord,  and  putting  his  hands  in  those  of  his  superior, 
promised  to  become  "  Ms  man^^  thenceforward,  and  to  serve 
him  faithfully  for  the  lands  he  held.  The  ceremony  was 
generally  concluded  by  a  kiss. 


62  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

By  degrees,  not  only  lands,  but  everything  else  came  to  be 
held  in  fief;  the  right  to  cut  wood  in  the  forests,  or  to  fish  in 
the  streams,  was  thus  obtained.  High  and  honorable  ofl&ces 
were  given  in  fief.  Nor  was  military  service  the  only  condition 
on  which  estates  were  bestowed  by  the  feudal  baron.  Very 
frequently  the  cup-bearer,  the  steward,  the  master-of-the-horse, 
the  carver,  the  butler,  and  the  chamberlain  held  their  lands  in 
fief,  for  the  domestic  services  which  they  rendered  to  their 
lord. 

In  the  days  of  the  feudal  system,  kings  had  much  greater 
possessions  than  they  have  now.  William  the  Conqueror 
owned  fourteen  hundred  manors,  besides  a  large  number  of 
houses,  forests,  parks,  and  chases.  Yet  even  this  extravagant 
number  of  hunting-grounds  did  not  satisfy  him.  To  obtain 
another,  more  extensive  than  all  the  rest,  he  laid  waste  a 
beautiful  district  nearly  ninety  miles  in  circumference.  It  lay 
in  the  south-west  part  of  the  province  of  Hampshire,  near  the 
royal  city  of  Winchester.  Thirty-six  parish  churches,  amid 
their  beautiful  villages,  and  over  a  hundred  pleasant  manors, 
were  destroyed  by  this  pitiless  king,  that  he  might  enjoy  one 
more  forest  in  which  .to  hunt  wild  animals.  The  wretched 
inhabitants  were  driven  from  their  burning  homes,  the  priests 
from  their  churches,  the  monks  from  their  monasteries.  Well 
might  the  Saxon  chronicler  add,  *'  this  savage  king  loved  wild 
beasts  as  if  he  had  been  their  father."  This  cruel  outrage  on 
the  part  of  King  William  struck  the  English  people  with 
horror.  They  believed  that  amid  the  shades  of  the  New 
Forest  the  judgment  of  God  would  fall  upon  the  wicked  Con- 
queror and  his  posterity.  These  prophecies  had  their  fulfil- 
ment. Before  the  arrow  of  Sir  Walter  Tyrrel  laid  low  the 
Red  King,  a  son  and  a  grandson  of  the  Conqueror  hd!d  met 
death  in  the  gloomy  shades  of  this  ill-fated  hunting-ground : 
the  one  killed  by  the  untimely  flight  of  an  arrow,  the  other 
gored  to  death  by  a  stag. 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  value  of  the  land  in  his  new  king- 
dom, the  Conqueror  ordered  a  book  to  be  made,  containing 
a  valuation  of  every  estate  or  manor  throughout  England 


CHANGES   EFFECTED   BY   THE   CONQUEST.  63 

exceptiDg  in  the  counties  of  Durham  and  Northumberland, 
how  much  land  it  contained,  and  what  it  was  capable  of 
producing.  This  book,  which  is  still  preserved,  is  called 
"  Doomsday  Book." 

The  Crusades,  in  which  Kobert  of  Normandy  and  Sir  Walter 
Tyrrel  joined,  and  which  for  nearly  two  hundred  and  fifty  years 
drew  numbers  from  every  country  of  Europe,  were  great  mili- 
tary expeditions  against  the  Turks  in  Palestine. 

It  had  long  been  customary  to  make  pilgrimages  to  Rome 
and  other  places  accounted  sacred.  The  pilgrim  made  these 
journeys  on  foot,  in  an  humble  garb,  with  staff  and  scrip, 
depending  upon  the  alms  of  the  charitable  for  his  daily  supply 
of  food.  On  his  return,  he  brought  some  token  from  the  holy 
places  which  he  had  visited.  Such  pilgrims  as  had  been  in 
Palestine  bore  palm-branches,  and  were  hence  called  palmers. 

♦♦  The  scallop-shell  his  cap  did  deck ; 
The  crucifix  around  his  neck 

Was  from  Loretto*  brought ; 
His  sandals  were  with  travel  tore, 
Staff,  budget,  bottle,  scrip,  he  bore ; 
The  faded  palm-branch  in  his  hand 
Showed  pilgrim  from  the  Holy  Land." 

No  country  on  the  earth  was  considered  so  sacred  as  Pales- 
tine. There  were  Bethlehem  and  Nazareth,  and  there  arose 
Jerusalem,  the  city  of  the  great  king,  within  whose  walls  lay 
the  Holy  Sepulchre.  For  a  long  time.  Christian  pilgrims 
were  allowed  to  visit  these  sacred  scenes  unmolested ;  but  in 
the  eleventh  century,  when  Palestine  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Turks,  these  fierce  conquerors,  more  intolerant  than  the 
Saracens  whom  they  had  dispossessed,  began  to  persecute 
Christian  pilgrims. 

In  the  year  1094,  one  of  these  pilgrims,  a  monk, 

named  Peter  the  Hermit,  roused  by  the  wrongs  and 

cruelties  of  the  Turks,   travelled  through  all  the  Christian 

♦  An  especially  sacred  shrine  in  Italy. 


64  HISTOKY   OF  ENGLAND. 

countries  of  Europe,  preaching  to  all  classes,  and  persuading 
them  to  raise  armies  for  the  rescue  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 

In  those  days  of  warlike  zeal,  »uch  preaching  was  eagerly 
followed,  and  in  the  year  1096,  a  large  army,  numbering  the 
bravest  of  Europe's  knights  and  soldiers,  took  its  march  for 
the  Holy  Land.  Each  warrior  wore  a  cross  embroidered  on 
his  garments,  or  painted  on  his  shield.  Hence,  these  wars 
took  the  name  of  Crusades,  or  wars  of  the  cross. 


Questions. — In  what  manner  did  a  conqueror  and  his  follewers 
dispose  of  the  conquered  territory  ? — Give  a  definition  of  the  feudal 
system. — Relate  the  illustration  given  in  the  instance  of  the  first 
earl  of  Chester. — Mention  the  several  classes  of  the  population,  and 
describe  their  condition. — What  account  is  given  of  some  of  the 
Norman  invaders  ? 

Describe  the  ceremony  of  homage. — What  other  possessions,  be- 
sides lands,  were  holden  in  fief? — On  what  other  conditions,  besides 
military  service,  were  estates  held  ? — What  great  cruelty  and  wrong 
did  William's  passion  for  the  chase  lead  him  to  commit? — How  was 
this  act  regarded  by  the  English  ? — Relate  what  befell  three  of  the 
Conqueror's  posterity  in  the  New  Forest. — What  was  Doomsday 
Book? 

Describe  pilgrimages. — What  difficulties  were  encountered  by  pil- 
grims to  the  Holy  Land,  at  the  close  of  the  11th  century? — To  what 
did  these  lead? — When  was  the  first  crusade  undertaken? — What 
gave  name  to  these  wars  ? 


HENRY  I.    AND   STEPHEN.  66 


PART  IV. 

ENGLAND  DURING  THE  TWELFTH  CENTURY. 

HENRY  I.— STEPHEN— HENRY  «I.— RICHARD  I. 

A.  D.  1100—1199. 

"To  chase  the  pagans  in  those  holy  fields, 
Over  whose  acres  walked  those  blessed  feet, 
"Which  [many]  hundred  years  ago  were  nailed 
For  our  advantage  to  the  bitter  cross." 

Shakspeaee. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

HENRY  I.   AND   STEPHEN. 

WARS  AGAINST  ROBERT — EFFORTS  TO  SECURE  THE  SUCCESSION  OF  MATILDA 
— SURNAMES — CIVIL  WAR. 

On  the  death  of  William  Rufus,  Robert,  heir  to  the 

1100. 

crown,  was  far  away  in  the  Holy  Land,  and  Henry 
Beauclerc,  unmindful  of  his  brother's  rights,  sped  from  the 
sad  scene  of  death  in  the  New  Forest,  and  seized  the  throne. 
Henry's  subjects  of  Saxon  race  were  favorably  disposed 
towards  him,  because  he  was  the  only  one  of  the  Conqueror's 
sons  who  was  English  born.  Still  further  to  secure  their  good- 
will, he  married  an  English  princess — Edith,  the  great-grand- 
daughter of  Edmund  Ironsides.  The  Saxon  maiden  was  most 
unwilling  to  wed  the  son  of  the  Norman  Conqueror,  but,  after 
much  entreaty,  she  gave  her  consent,  in  the  hope  that  this 
union  might  be  the  means  of  reconciling  the  two  people. 
She  then  received  the  name  of  Matilda,  to  gratify  the  Nor- 
mans, who  could  not  bear  that  the  sweet  English  name  of 

6*  r 


66  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

Edith  should  constantly  remind  them  of  the  Saxon  birth  of 
their  queen.  By  the  Saxon  chroniclers  she  is  called  Maude 
the  Good. 

Henry  was  a  Norman  at  heart,  although  he  was  of  English 
birth,  had  married  an  English  princess,  and  had  given  to 
his  Saxon  subjects  charters  sealed  with  his  own  seal;  yet, 
when  he  no  longer  needed.their  aid,  he  forgot  all  these  claims, 
and  treated  the  English  no  better  than  his  father  and  brother 
had  done.  • 

Robert,  on  his  return  from  Palestine,  laid  claim  to 

the  English  crown.      For  years  the  same  brothers' 

strife  which  had  made  the  last  reigns  so  miserable,  was  kept 

up  in  this.     Nor  did  the  contest  end  when  Robert  lay 

blind   and   a  prisoner  in  Cardiff  Castle,  the  victim 

of  Henry's  cruel  triumphs.     Generous  hearts  in  France  and 

Flanders  gathered    around    the   Norman  duke's  young  son, 

William  Fitz-Robert,  and  for  a  time  strove  to  win  for  him  the 

English  throne. 

In  the  year  1120,  Fitz-Robert's  cause  was  lost:  and, 

1120*  .  . 

having  triumphed  over  every  enemy,  Henry  thought 
he  might  enjoy  his  crown  in  quiet,  and  leave  it  in  undisputed 
succession  to  his  only  and  beloved  son.  But  He  by  whom 
kings  rule,  had  ordained  otherwise.  The  son  (William)  on 
whom  the  monarch's  every  hope  was  centred,  and  to  whom 
he  had  caused  all  his  nobles  to  swear  allegiance,  perished  by 
shipwreck ;  a  calamity  which  so  affected  King  Henry,  that  it 
is  said  he  was  never  afterwards  seen  to  smile.  This  event, 
however  grievous  to  the  heart  of  the  royal  father,  was  not  so 
to  the  English  nation.  The  young  prince  had  been  heard  to 
say,  that  when  he  should  be  king,  he  would  yoke  Englishmen 
like  oxen  to  his  ploughs.  ''  He  will  never  yoke  us  to  his 
plough  now,"  they  exclaimed,  on  hearing  of  his  death ;  "  the 
judgment  of  God  hath  fallen  on  the  cruel  oppressor." 

The  remainder  of  Henry's  life  was  spent  in  trying  to  secure 
the  crown  to  his  daughter  Matilda.     He  summoned  all  his 
nobles,  and  made  them  take  the  same  vows  of  obedi- 
ence to  her  which  they  had  before  taken  to  her  brother. 


HENRY   I.    AND   STEPHEN.  67 

In  the  year  1127  she  was  married  to  Greoffrey,  Prince  of  Anjou. 
This  prince  was  surnauicd  Flantagenet,  because  he  wore  in  his 
bonnet  a  sprig  of  flowering  broom,  called  "  plante  a  genet/' 
Although  Geoffrey  himself  never  wore  the  English  crown, 
from  him  sprang  the  long  line  of  Plantagenet  kings,  who  for 
so  many  centuries  swayed  the  sceptre  of  England. 

It  was  in  thes%  days  that  the  practice  of  giving  surnames 
began  to  prevail.  At  first,  a  second  name  was  added  to  the 
Christian  one,  only  to  denote  some  individual  peculiarity,  as  in 
the  case  of  William  Rufus  and  Henry  Beauclerc.  They  had 
no  common  family  surname  {sire-name).  The  second  name 
was  adopted  by  the  Normans,  as  a  badge  of  distinction  from 
the  conquered  Saxons.  A  young  Norman  lady  refused  to 
marry  the  husband  whom  King  Henry  chose  for  her,  on  the 
plea  that  he  had  but  one  name.  "  My  father  and  my  grand- 
father,'' said  she,  "  had  each  two  names,  and  it  were  a  great 
shame  to  me  to  marry  a  man  who  has  only  one."  The  king 
removed  the  proud  damsel's  objection,  by  giving  the  noble- 
man, whose  Christian  name  was  Robert,  the  surname  of  Fitz- 
Roy;  meaning,  son  of  the  king.  The  Normans  frequently 
took  for  a  second  name,  that  of  the  Norman  home  from  which 
they  had  come.  Thus  the  family  of  Seymours  were  so  named 
from  the  French  town  of  St.  INfaur. 

Henry  I.  died  in  the  year  1135,  in  Normandy.     In 

compliance  with  a  curious  custom,  common  in  those 

days,  a  portion  only  of  his  body  was  buried  in  that  country ; 

the  remainder  was  taken  to  England,  and  laid  in  the  abbey 

church  of  Reading,  which  he  had  founded. 

In  the  days  of  which  we  write,  there  was  little  love  or  reve- 
rence for  truth  among  men ;  least  of  all,  among  princes.  They 
multiplied  oaths,  and  took  them  with  great  solemnity,  on  the 
altars,  at  the  tombs  of  saints,  and  over  shrines  filled  with  sacred 
relics.  But  the  fbar  of  the  God  of  truth  had  no  place  in  their 
hearts.  Thus  the  Norman  barons  who  swore  fealty  to  Matilda 
only,  did  so  out  of  fear  for  the  king,  her  father.  As  soon  as 
Henry  was  dead,  these  nobles  placed  the  crown,  not  on  the 
brow  of  the  Countess  of  Anjou,  as  they  had  solemnly  sworn  to 


68  HISTORY   OF    ENGLAND. 

do,  but  on  that  of  Stephen,  Count  of  Blois,  a  grandson  of 
WilHam  the  Conqueror,  and  nephew  of  the  late  king. 

King  Stephen  was  not  a  cruel  man,  but,  as  he  was  compelled 

1136    ^^  ^»^^  against  Matilda  for  his  crown,  the  country  was 

to       plunged  into  civil  war,  and  there  was  more  misery 

and  sorrow  in  his  reign  than  in  that  of  many  a  worse 

king.     The  nobles  built  castles  all  over  England,  in  which 

they  lived  like  robber  chiefs.      Bands  of  lawless  soldiery, 

retainers  of  the  great  barons,  roamed  about,  plundering  and 

burninsr.    No  one  felt  safe.    The  nation  was  so  divided 

1139.  ^ 

between  the  parties  of  Stephen  and  Matilda,  that 
neighbor  suspected  neighbor,  "and  brother  had  no  confidence 
in  brother.  In  a  whole  day's  journey,  towns  would  be  found 
without  a  single  inhabitant,  and  the  country  without  a  culti- 
vated field.  Some  of  the  poor  people  built  wretched  huts 
near  the  walls  of  the  churches,  or  in  the  graveyards,  hoping 
that  the  sanctity  of  the  place  might  preserve  them  from 
violence. 

In  the  year  1147,  Matilda,  broken  in  health  and 

spirits,  gave  up  fighting  for  the  throne,  and  went  back 
to  Normandy.  Her  son,  Henry  Plantagenet,  came  into  Eng- 
land, to  contend  for  the  cause  which  his  mother  had  abandoned. 

On  opposite  banks  of  the  river  Thames,  near  the  town 

of  Wallingford,  lay  the  two  armies  of  Henry  Planta- 
genet and  King  Stephen,  ready  for  battle.  One  good  noble- 
man, the  Earl  of  Arundel,  boldly  said :  "  It  was  a  shame  to 
increase  the  miseries  of  a  whole  nation,  on  account  of  the 
ambition  of  two  princes."  Other  lords  were  of  the  same  wise 
opinion,  and  undertook  to  make  peace  between  the  parties. 
They  succeeded;  and  thus  ended  the  weary  and  wicked 
struggle. 

By  the  terms  of  the  peace,  Stephen  was  to  reign 

until  his  death,  and  then  Henry  Plantagenet  was  to 
succeed  to  the  crown.  The  death  of  Stephen  occurred  in  the 
following  year. 

An  old    Saxon   chronicler  sa^s  of  his  reign  :    *^  All   was 
dissension,  and  evil,  and  rapine This  lasted  the  whole 


THE  FIRST  SIXTEEN  YEARS  OF  HENRY  II.'s  REIGN.       69 

nineteen  years  that  Stephen  was  king,  and  it  grew  continually 
worse  and  worse." 

Questions. — What  disposed  the  English  favojp,bIy  towards  Henry 
I.  ? — By  what  act  did  he  especially  attach  the  people  to  him  ? — How 
did  his  professions  towards  the  English  result? — What  wars  dis- 
tracted the  kingdom  ? — Which  party  triumphed  ? 

Relate  the  domestic  affliction  which  befell  King  Henry. — To  what 
efforts  did  he  apply  the  closing  years  of  his  life  ? — Of  wtiat  royal 
house  was  Geoffrey  of  Anjou  the  founder? — Why  so  called? — How 
were  surnames  first  applied  ? — How  were  they  regarded  by  the  Nor- 
mans ? — Repeat  the  illustration  given  in  proof  of  this. 

Who  succeeded  Henry  I.  ? — What  was  the  character  of  this  reign  ? 
— Between  what  parties  did  civil  war  prevail  ? — Describe  the  state 
of  the  country  during  this  reign. — Relate  the  circumstances  which 
terminated  this  struggle. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

THE  FIRST  SIXTEEN  YEARS  OF  HENRY  II.'s  REIGN. 

EXTENT  OF  HENRY'S  DOMINIONS — HIS  QUARRELS  WITH  THE  CHURCH — 
THOMAS  A  BECKET. 

The  young  Henry  Plantagenet,  a  monarch  at  the 
early  age  of  twenty-one,  was  the  richest  sovereign  in 
Christendom.     He  was  king  of  England  and  duke  of  Nor- 
mandy.    By  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1150,  he  had  become 
count  of  Anjou  and  Touraine.     By  his  marriage  with  Eleanor, 
daughter  of  the  earl  of  Poictou  and  duke  of  Aquitaine,  he 
became  lord  of  the  vast  territory  which  stretches  between  the 
mouth  of  the  Loire  and  the  Pyrenees,  including  some  of  the 
finest  provinces  of  France.     He  laid  claim  to  the  rich  earldom 
of  Toulouse,  and  destroyed  the  independence  of  the 
gay,  light-hearted  people,  who,   amid  the  beautiful 
valleys  of  Provence  and  Languedoc,  had  preserved,  in  that 
rude  age,  a  home  for  poetry  and  the  arts.     In  Brittany,  he 


70  HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND. 

compelled  the  brave  descendants  of  the  ancient  Bri- 

1166.  ^  .  . 

tons  to  yield  to  his  authority,  and  married  his  eldest 
son,  Geoffrey,  to  the  daughter  of  one  of  their  native  dukes. 

Although  Henr^Ppretended  to  hold  these  provinces  as  fiefs 
of  the  French  crown,  he  was,  in  reality,  so  independent,  that 
the  king  of  France  was  left  with  but  a  small  territory  to 
govern.  This  monarch,  Louis  VII.,  was  ever  ready  to  make 
war  upoft  his  powerful  vassal.  The  people  of  Henry's  new 
provinces  liked  not  the  rule  of  the  foreign  master,  and  the 
wicked  Eleanor  stirred  up  his  children  to  revolt.  These 
clouds  cast  their  darkest  shadows  over  the  later  years  of  this 
king's  long  and  eventful  reign.  At  first,  trouble  arose  in  a 
more  unlooked-for  quarter. 

*  The  power  of  the  church  in  England  at  this  time'  was  very 
great.  King  William  the  Conqueror  had  made  a  law,  by 
which  it  was  forbidden  to  try  any  clergyman  in  the  civil 
courts.  Whatever  the  crime  he  had  committed,  he  was  only 
answerable  to  the  bishops'  or  church  courts.  The  clergy 
could  not,  by  their  canon  or  church  law,  sentence  one  of  their 
own  order  to  death,  nor  were  they  disposed  to  be  very  severe 
towards  clerical  offenders;  and  thus  many  an  evil  deed  escaped 
the  punishment  which  it  deserved. 

Although  this  law  of  William's  was  a  very  bad  one  in  many 
respects,  yet  it  had  come  in  the  course  of  years,  to  be  of  great 
service  to  the  English  portion  of  the  nation.  Many  a  Saxon 
villain  escaped  from  the  harsh  tyranny  of  his  Norman  lord, 
and  became  a  priest.  The  master  might  try  in  vain  to  recover 
him;  for  the  cause  could  only  be  tried  in  the  church  courts, 
and  the  church  never  sent  back  to  the  plough,  or  the  work- 
shop, any  who  had  taken  vows  for  the  service  of  religion.  In 
this  way,  many  a  Saxon  villain  became  free  from  servitude  to 
the  Norman,  and  for  this  reason  the  English  population  were 
friendly  to  the  privileges  of  the  clergy. 

Henry  II.,  unable  to  brook  the  existence  of  an  authority  in 
the  land,  rivalling  his  own,  determined  to  abolish  the  church 
courts.  To  carry  out  this  reform,  it  was  of  the  first  import- 
ance, that  the  primate,  second  only  to  the  sovereign  in  power, 


THE  FIRST  SIXTEEN  YEARS  OF  HENRY  II. 'S  REIGN.       71 

should  be  one  disposed  to  espouse  the  interests  of  the  king, 
even  at  the  sacrifice  of  the  independence  of  the  clergy.  Such 
a  man  Henry  thought  he  had  found  in  his  chancellor, 
Thomas  h  Becket,  who  accordingly  was  made  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  in  the  year  1162. 

The  history  of  this  remarkable  man  is  very  interesting. 
His  father,  Grilbert  Becket,  was  a  Saxon  yeoman,  who,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  I.,  following  the  banner  of  his  Norman  lord, 
had  gone  on  a  crusade  against  the  infidels  in  Palestine.  There 
he  was  taken  prisoner,  and  became  the  slave  of  a  Saracen  chief. 

During  his  captivity,  Becket  won  the  aflfection  of  the  only 
daughter  of  his  master.  By  her  aid,  he  escaped  from  bondage 
and  returned  to  England.  The  Saracen  maiden  formed  the 
bold  design  of  following  her  lover.  She  knew  but  two  EngHsh 
words,  "  London"  and  "  Gilbert."  Fleeing  to  a  seaport,  she 
repeated  the  word  "  London,"  until  she  obtained  passage  on 
board  a  vessel  bound  for  that  port.  On  arriving,  she  went 
through  the  streets  of  the  city,  crying  ''  Gilbert,"  "  Gilbert," 
until  the  sound  of  his  name  reached  the  ear  of  her  lost  lover. 
Becket  persuaded  her  to  receive  Christian  baptism,  and  she 
became  his  wife.  From  this  union  of  a  Saxon  yeoman  and  a 
Saracen  maiden,  sprang  Thomas  a  Becket. 

When  very  young,  Thomas  was  sent  to  France,  there  to 
learn  more  perfectly  the  language  of  the  conquerors,  and  to 
lose  every  trace  of  the  English  accent,  which  could  betray  him 
as  one  of  the  oppressed  race.  Returning  to  England,  young, 
accomplished,  with  polished  manners,  and  well  versed  in  the 
arts  of  pleasing,  he  soon  became  a  general  favorite  with  the 
Norman  lords.  Introduced  at  court,  he  rose  high  in  the  royal 
favor. 

Henry  made  Becket  chancellor  of  England,  committed  to 
his  care  the  education  of  his  eldest  son,  and  loaded  him  with 
riches  and  honors.  His  dwelling  was  a  palace  : — he  had  ves- 
sels of  gold  and  silver,  dresses  emblazoned  with  jewels,  tables 
laden  with  costly  dishes,  and  one  hundred  and  forty  knights 
as  his  attendants. 

When  he  was  travelling  in  France,  his  retinue  excited  the 


i'-^  HISTORY   OP  ENGLAND. 

^^^g  admiration  of  all  beholders.  He  was  preceded  by- 
two  hundred  and  fifty  singing  boys;  then  came  his 
hounds  and  light  wagons,  laden  with  provisions,  his  wardrobe 
(and  on  this  occasion  we  are  told  he  had  twenty-four  changes 
of  apparel),  the  furniture  of  his  chapel,  and  of  his  bed- 
chamber. Two  of  the  wagons  carried  barrels  of  ale,  to  be 
distributed  among  the  people.  After  the  wagons,  were  led 
twelve  beautiful  horses,  "  having  on  each  a  kneeling  groom, 
and  a  monkey  in  front  of  him.''  Then  followed  war-horses 
for  all  the  knights  in  his  train.  After  them,  came  the  fal- 
coners, knights,  and  squires;  and  lastly,  the  royal  chancellor 
himself.  As  the  people  of  France  gazed  upon  this  splendid 
pageant,  they  exclaimed,  "  What  manner  of  man  must  the 
king  of  England  be,  when  his  chancellor  travels  in  such 
state !" 

In  return  for  all  the  favor  bestowed  upon  him  by  the  king, 
Thomas  h,  Becket  seemed  devoted  to  the  royal  interests.  He 
attended  Henry  in  his  wars,  and,  although  a  churchman, 
donned  armor  of  mail,  and,  at  the  head  of  seven  hundred  of 
his  own  vassals,  captured  French  castles  for  the  English  king. 
He  aided  Henry  in  breaking  down  the  great  power  of  the 
Norman  barons,  eleven  hundred  of  whose  castles,  the  strong- 
holds of  robbery  and  cruelty,  were  levelled  to  the  ground. 
He  even  reproved  the  bishops  who  asserted  their  independ- 
ence, telling  them  that  men  of  the  church  were  as  much 
bound  to  support  the  royal  authority,  as  men  of  the  sword. 

It  is  true,  that  when  the  subject  of  the  primacy  was  first 
named  to  Becket  by  the  king,  he  said,  laughingly,  whilst 
pointing  to  his  gay  dress,  "  A  fine  saint  you  have  chosen  for 
so  holy  an  office  !" — and  then  added,  more  seriously,  "  besides, 
you  have  views  on  the  subject  of  the  church,  to  which  I 
could  never  lend  myself;  and  I  fear  that,  if  I  were  to  become 
archbishop,  we  should  soon  cease  to  be  friends."  But  Henry 
did  not  regard  these  words  as  uttered  in  earnest. 

No  sooner  had  Becket  been  installed   primate  of 

England,  than,  giving  up  his  office,  of  chancellor,  he 

difimissed  his  retinue  of  knights  and  squires,  and  surrounded 


THE  FIRST  SIXTEEN  YEARS  OP  HENRY  Il/S  REIGN.       73 

himself  by  men  of  Saxon  birth,  and  low  degree.  His  delicate 
food  was  exchanged  for  the  coarsest  fare ;  water,  in  which  were 
steeped  bitter  herbs,  supplied  his  daily  drink.  Sackcloth  took 
the  place  of  his  costly  raiment.  He  washed  the  feet  of  beggars, 
and  visited,  with  alms  and  prayers,  the  sick  and  the  miserable. 
From  indulging  in  every  extravagance  which  even  his  luxurious 
taste  could  devise,  he  came  now  to  abandon  the  most  simple 
and  innocent  recreations  of  life.  The  man  of  the  world  had 
become  a  rigid  monk,  and  gained  by  his  extraordinary  austeri- 
ties the  reputation  of  a  saint. 

The  kin^-'s  dismay  at  this  chanoje  in  the  new  arch- 

1163.        . 

bishop  was  unbounded.  That  the  devoted,  pleasure- 
loving  courtier,  whose  talents  had  been  hitherto  chiefly  con- 
spicuous in  ministering  to  the  royal  magnificence,  should  now 
set  himself  in  opposition  to  the  monarch's  will,  and  rival  the 
asceticism  of  a  St.  Dunstan,  was  indeed  matter  of  astonishment 
to  the  whole  realm.  The  conduct  of  Becket,  however,  did  not 
suiFer  the  king's  mind  to  remain  long  in  doubt  as  to  the  reality 
of  this  strange  transformation,  and  in  this  long  and  bitter  con- 
troversy between  Henry  and  his  prelate,  it  must  be  conceded 
that  h  Becket  was  the  first  aggressor. 

Henry  very  soon  discovered  that  the  views  of  Becket,  as 
the  courtier  had  asserted  before  his  promotion,  were  widely 
difi'erent  from  his  own  on  the  subject  of  ecclesiastical  autho- 
rity. So  far  from  showing  any  willingness  to  abate  the  influ- 
ence of  the  clergy,  the  new  primate  did  all  in  his  power  to 
increase  and  extend  it. 

In  the  county  of  Kent,  on  the  banks  of  the  Med- 

1163.  "^  ' 

way,  and  scattered  throughout  other  portions  of  that 
pleasant  province,  stood  strong  castles  and  fair  manor-houses, 
which  in  more  favored  days  had  belonged  to  the  see  of  Can- 
terbury. Becket  insisted  on  the  restitution  of  them  all.  From 
the  king  himself  he  claimed  the  strong  castle  of  Rochester, 
the  position  of  which  rendered  it  a  place  of  great  importance, 
and  from  the  Earl  of  Clare  he  demanded  the  surrender 
of  Tunbridge  barony  and  castle.  But  the  crowning  audacity 
of  the    haughty   prelate  was   the    excommunication    of  one 


74  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

of  Henry's  vassals  for  interfering  in  a  matter  of  church  pre- 
ferment. This  last  act  made  Henry  exceedingly  angry ;  for 
among  the  laws  which  he  was  most  anxious  to  establish,  was 
one  to  prevent  the  excommunication  of  a  vassal  of  the  king, 
without  the  royal  consent. 

The  quarrel  between  the  monarch  and  his  once  familiar 
friend  became  daily  more  violent.  The  king  won  over  most 
of  the  bishops,  and  all  the  Norman  nobles,  to  his  side,  and  the 
primate  was  left  single-handed  in  the  struggle.  He  had  with 
him,  only  the  hearts  and  prayers  of  the  English  portion  of  the 
nation,  who  saw  with  pride  and  delight,  an  archbishop  of  Saxon 
birth,  opposing,  with  so  much  firmness,  the  power  of  a  Norman 
king. 

At  Clarendon,  near  Salisbury,  the  king  held  a  large 
assembly  of  bishops  and  nobles.  He  presented  to 
them  sixteen  articles  (known  as  the  Constitutions  of  Claren- 
don) for  the  regulation  of  the  church.  Becket  alone  refused 
to  sign  them.  The  king  then  took  away  the  riches  which,  in 
other  days,  he  had  delighted  to  lavish  upon  his  favorite 
courtier.  Bishops  and  nobles  besought  the  primate  to  yield, 
and  for  a  moment  he  gave  in  his  adhesion  to  the  king's  de- 
mands, but  afterwards  repented  of  this  submissiou,  and  re- 
newed his  resistance  to  royal  authority.  Believing  his  life 
and  liberty  in  danger,  he  fled  in  the  disguise  of  a  Saxon  monk, 
taking  the  name  of  Brother  Dearman,  to  France. 

This  quarrel  was  long  and  bitter.  Sometimes  tlie  Pope  and 
the  king  of  France  -took  part  with  the  exiled  primate,  and 
sometimes  with  the  angry  monarch.  At  length,  in  the  year 
1170,  the  Pope  took  decided  ground  in  support  of  the  arch- 
bishop, and  obliged  Henry,  who  was  then  in  France,  to  restore 
him  to  favor.  The  meeting  of  reconciliation  was  held  in  a 
pleasant  meadow  on  the  borders  of  Touraine. 

A  few  months  later,  Becket  went  back  to  England. 

His  friends  begged  him  not  to  venture  across  the 

Channel.     They  told  him  he  had  enemies  there,  who  hated 

him  to  the  death,* and  that  one  knight  had  sworn,  ''that  he 

would  not  let  the  archbishop  live  to  eat  a  single  loaf  of  bread 


THE  FIRST  SIXTEEN  YEARS  OF  HENRY  II. 's  REIGN.       75 

in  England."  But  the  fearless  archbishop  replied  :  "  Seven 
years  of  absence  are  long  enough,  both  for  the  shepherd  and 
his  flock,  and  I  will  not  stop,  though  I  were  sure  to  be  cut  to 
pieces  as  soon  as  I  landed  on  the  opposite  coast."  Becket 
entered  England  in  safety,  and  was  warmly  received  by  the 
poor  and  lowly  of  Saxon  blood ;  but  not  a  single  great  lord  or 
noble,  not  one  of  Norman  race,  gave  welcome  to  the  exile. 

Not  long  before  Becket's  return,  the  king  had  caused  his 
eldest  son.  Prince  Henry,  to  be  crowned  by  the  archbishop 
of  York.  The  right  of  crowning  English  monarchs,  since  the 
conquest,  had  belonged  solely  to  the  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury. When  the  primate  found  that  this  honor  had  been 
conferred  on  the  see  of  York,  he  persuaded  the  Pope  to  ex- 
communicate the  archbishop,  as  well  as  the  bishops  of  London 
and  Salisbury,  who  were  among  Becket's  chief  enemies. 

The  three  excommunicated  prelates  hastened  across 

1170« 

the  Channel,  and  presented  themselves  to  the  king  in 
Normandy.  Henry's  anger,  on  hearing  of  what  had  been 
done,  knew  no  bounds.  "  How !"  he  exclaimed,  "  a  fellow 
that  hath  eaten  my  bread, — a  beggar,  that  first  came  to  my 
court  on  a  lame  horse,  dares  insult  his  king  and  the  royal 
family,  and  tread  upon  the  whole  kingdom,  and  not  one  of  the 
cowards  I  nourish  at  my  table — not  one  will  deliver  me  from 
this  turbulent  priest !"  Solomon  says :  "  The  wrath  of  a  king 
is  as  messengers  of  death."  Scarcely  had  Henry  uttered  these 
words,  when  four  knights  secretly  left  his  court.  Their  ab- 
sence was  unnoted,  their  design  unsuspected. 

Soon  they  were  in  England,  lodging  at  the  house 

of  a  bitter  enemy  of  Thomas  h  Becket.  On  the  after- 
noon of  the  29th  of  December,  they  came,  with  twelve  adhe- 
rents, to  the  archbishop's  palace,  arrayed  in  armor.  The 
gates  were  barred,  and  the  building  rung  with  the  sound  of 
blows  from  the  battle-axe  of  the  conspirators.  Becket's 
attendants  urged  him  to  take  refuge  in  the  church.  He 
refused,  until,  hearing  the  chanting  of  vespers,  he  exclaimed, 
"Now  my  duty  calls  me  thither,  I  will  go."  With  calm  and 
stately  mien,  preceded  by  his  cross-bearer,  Becket  passed  into 


76  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

the  cloisters,  and  proceeded  to  the  cathedral.  On  entering, 
his  followers  would  have  barred  the  doors,  but  he  forbade 
them.  Scarcely  had  he  reached  the  steps  ascending  to  the 
choir,  when  a  knight,  followed  by  armed  men,  appeared  at  the 
other  end  of  the  church,  and  a  voice  cried,  "  Where  is  the 
traitor?'*  The  church  was  dimly  lighted — only  here  and 
there  a  lamp  glimmered  before  a  shrine.  In  the  crypts  of  the 
old  cathedral,  liecket  might  easily  have  found  a  hiding-place ; 
but  he  would  not  stir,  and  when  the  voice  again  cried,  "  Where 
is  the  archbishop?"  he  answered,  "Here  am  I,  an  archbishop, 
but  no  traitor,  ready  to  suffer  in  my  Saviour's  name  '* 

1170.  '  "^  ^ 

Alone,  save  for  the  protection  of  his  faithful  cross- 
bearer,  who  warded  off  the  first  blow,  the  English  archbishop 
•was  slain  at  the  foot  of  a  column,  then  standing  in  what  has 
ever  since  been  called,  ''  The  Transept  of  the  Martyrdom,"  in 
the  cathedral  church  of  Canterbury. 

Questions. — Describe  the  territorial  possessions  of  Henry  II. — 
Relate  the  means  by  which  he  acquired  them. — Were  these  vast  do- 
minions left  him  in  undisturbed  possession  ? — What  law  had  been 
made  by  William  the  Conqueror  in  behalf  of  the  clergy  ? — How  had 
it  operated  in  favor  of  the  Saxon  portion  of  the  nation? — What  de- 
sign did  King  Henry  form? — To  effect  this  reform,  what  requisite 
was  important  ? 

Relate  the  history  of  Bcckct's  parents. — Where  did  he  pass  his 
childhood?— Describe  Becket's  advancement  in  the  royal  favor. — 
Give  some  account  of  the  style  in  which  he  travelled. — In  what  ways 
did  he  render  assistance  to  the  king? — How  did  he  receive  the  pro- 
position of  the  primacy  ? 

Describe  Becket's  conduct  on  becoming  archbishop. — In  what  way 
did  he  tliwart  the  king's  designs  ? — What  classes  espoused  the  cause 
of  the  king  ? — Who  remained  with  Becket  ? — Describe  the  primate's 
conduct  regarding  the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon. — What  foreign 
powers  took  part  in  this  quarrel,  and  what  was  their  conduct? — 
When  and  by  what  means  was  a  reconciliation  effected  ? 

Describe  the  archbishop's  return  to  England. — What  act  of  the 
king  had,  about  this  time,  excited  Becket's  anger? — How  did  the 
primate  treat  his  enemies  ? — Describe  Heni-y's  conduct,  and  repeat 
his  words,  on  hearing  of  this  transaction. — What  effect  did  the  latter 
produce  ? — Relate  the  circumstances  of  Becket's  death. 


HENRY  II.  77 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

HENRY  II. 

THE  LAST  FOURTEEN  YEARS  OP  HIS  REIGN — CONQUEST  OP  IRELAND — "WARS 
IN  FRANCE. 

Thomas  a  Becket  gained  by  his  death  the  cause  for 
which  he  had  suiFered  during  life.  The  king  dared  no  longer 
contend  against  the  power  of  the  church,  and  obtained  absolu- 
tion from  the  Pope,  in  the  year  1172,  only  on  condition  that 
he  would  do  away  with  all  laws  hostile  to  the  privileges  of  the 
clergy. 

Three  years  and  a  half  after  the  death  of  the  arch- 

Xi74t, 

bishop,  the  king  visited  his  tomb  at  Canterbury,  and 
did  penance  there,  causing  himself  to  be  scourged  by  eighty 
monks,  with  knotted  cords.  Another  act  which  contributed 
to  regain  the  favor  of  the  Pope,  was  far  more  in  accordance 
with  King  Henry's  natural  character  and  tastes.  This  was 
the  conquest  of  Ireland. 

The  people  of  Ireland  had  been  converted  to  Christianity 
by  the  labors  of  St.  Patrick,  a  Scotch  bishop,  who  had 
preached  among  them,  in  the  fifth  century  of  the  Christian 
era,  more  than  a  hundred  years  before  St.  Augustine's  mission 
to  England.  The  Irish  became  very  earnest  and  warm-hearted 
Christians ;  and  no  country  sent  out  more  missionaries,  ani- 
mated by  pure  zeal  for  spreading  the  glad  tidings  of  the 
gospel.  Ireland,  too,  in  those  days,  had  many  learned  as  well 
as  pious  men,  and  her  schools  and  scholars  became  famous 
throughout  Europe.  The  teacher  of  Alfred  the  Great  was  an 
Irishman.  The  Christian  Church  in  Ireland  did  not  acknow- 
ledge the  authority  of  the  Pope,  and  the  Roman  pontiff, 
offended  at  this  independence,  was  quite  ready  to  give  his 
countenance  to  any  king  who  would  conquer  the  island,  and 
bring  it  under  subjection  to  the  Papal  see. 


78  HISTORY   OP   ENGLAND. 

Henry  first  found  a  footing  in  Ireland,  by  espousing  the 
cause  of  one  of  its  five  kings,  who,  driven  by  the  others  from 
his  own  kingdom,  sought  revenge  at  the  hands  of  the  English. 
Henry  was  at  that  time  too  much  engaged  in  his  wars  in 
France,  to  go  in  person  t#  Ireland,  but  he  wrote  letters, 
granting  permission  to  any  of  his  noble  vassals  to  engage  in 
the  enterprise.  The  Earl  of  Pembroke,  surnamed  Strongbow, 
raised  an  army,  restored  the  exiled  Irish  chief,  and  then, 
with  much  cruelty,  proceeded  to  conquer  other  provinces. 
Henry  himself  visited  Ireland  in  the  year  1171.  He  put  an 
end  to  the  growing  power  of  his  vassal,  the  Earl  of  Pembroke, 
and  taking  the  title  of  king  of  Ireland,  demanded  the  submis- 
sion of  the  Irish  people. 

The  kingdoms  of  Leinster  and  Munster  yielded  to  his 
authority,  but  the  wild  races  in  Ulster  and  Connaught,  pro- 
tected by  their  marshes  and  mountains,  refused  submission  to 
the  foreign  conquerors.  Henry's  new  kingdom  embraced  only 
the  eastern  half  of  the  island,  and  might  be  bounded  on  the 
west  by  a  line  drawn  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  Boyne  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Shannon. 

Thus,  in  the  year  1172,  was  a  new  province  won  for  the 
crown  of  England,   and  a  new  church  brought  under  the 
dominion  of  Rome. 
j--,g         And  now  there  gathered  around  these  latter  years 


to 


of  King  Henry's  reign,  those  clouds  of  domestic  dis- 
sension  and  vsorrow,  which  darkened  his  pathway  to 
the  grave.  Henry  was  a  devoted  father,  but  his  sons,  Henry, 
Geoffrey,  and  Richard,  stirred  up  by  their  ambitious  mother. 
Queen  Eleanor,  were  in  constant  rebellion  against  him.  In 
these  rebellions,  which  extended  through  the  space  of  sixteen 
years,  the  people  of  Eleanor's  provinces,  Touraine  and  Aqui- 
taine,  sided  with  the  young  princes,  and  the  songs  of  their 
troubadours  fanned  these  flames  of  family  strife. 

In  the  year  1187,  came  sad  tidings  from  the  Holy  Land. 
The  Mohammedans  had  taken  Jerusalem  from  the  Christians, 
and  the  Pope,  Gregory  VIII.,  had  died  of  grief  at  the 
news.    His  successor,  Clement  III.,  immediately  summoned  all 


HENRY   II.  79 

Christian  princes  to  a  second  crusade.  Henry  of  England, 
Philip  of  France,  and  Richard,  who  was  then  the  eldest  son 
of  the  English  king  (Henry  and  Geoffrey  having  died  a  few 
years  before),  responded  warmly  to  the  call.  The  three 
princes  met  in  peace,  under  the  shadow  of  an  old  elm  tree, 
and  there  vowed  to  take  the  cross  for  the  Holy  Land. 

But  ere  the  preparations  could  be  made,  Richard  was  again 
in  arms,  with  the  French  monarch,  against  his  father.  The' 
old  king's  sorrows  had  almost  bowed  him  to  the  grave.  The 
people  of  Normandy  were  still  faithful  to  him,  and  he  had 
placed  his  love  and  confidence  in  his  youngest  son,  John. 
In  the  year  1189,  he  made  peace  with  Richard,  and  the 
names  of  those  who  had  rebelled  against  him  were  brought  to 
him  for  pardon,  when  he  beheld  that  of  John  first  on  the  list. 
His  heart  was  broken.  He  exclaimed,  "Is  it  true,  that  the 
child  of  my  heart — he  whom  I  have  cherished  more  than  all 
the  rest,  hath  verily  betrayed  me?  Now,  then,  let  everything 
go  as  it  will — I  have  no  longer  care  for  myself,  or  for  the 
world !" 

He  lingered  a  few  sad  days,  and  then  was  laid  in  the  abbey 
church  of  Fontevraud,  on  the  banks  of  the  Loire.  Richard 
is  said  to  have  visited  his  father's  bier,  and  to  have  shed  over 
it  bitter  tears,  in  vain  remorse  for  the  conduct  which  had 
brought  that  parent  in  sorrow  to  the  tomb. 

**  Alas !  my  guilty  pride  and  ire  ! 
Were  but  this  work  undone, 
I  would  give  England's  crown,  my  sire ! 
To  hear  thee  bless  thy  son." 

Questions. — What  was  gained  by  Becket's  death  ? — On  what  con- 
dition was  absolution  granted  to  the  king  ? — What  penance  did 
Henry  perform  ? — When  and  by  whom  had  Christianity  been  intro- 
duced into  Ireland? — What  was  the  condition  of  Ireland  in  those 
days? — Why  did  the  Roman  pontiff  consent  to  its  invasion  ?-— What 
circumstance  afforded  Henry  an  opportunity  for  this  ? 

Describe  Earl  Pembroke's  conduct. — What  parte  of  Ireland  were 
conquered? — Describe  the  limit  of  the  new  kingdom. — Relate  the 
domestic  dissensions  which   disturbed  the  latter  half  of  Henry's 


80  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

reign. — What  occurrences  aflFecting  all  Cliristendom  took  place  in 
the  year  1187? — What  princes  assumed  the  cross? — By  what  was 
Henry  detained  ? — What  circumstance  hastened  his  death  ? — Where 
did  he  die  ? — Describe  Richard's  conduct. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

RICHARD  I. 

HIS     CRUSADE — CAPTITITY  —  RELEASE — WARS     IN    FRANCE  —  RICHARD'S 
DEATH — WILLIAM   LONGBEARD. 

Henry  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Richard,  called  Cceur-de- 
Lion,  or  "  the  lion-hearted,"  on  account  of  his  great  bravery. 
It  would  have  been  better  for  his  subjects  had  he 
been  more  human-hearted. 

No  sooner  was  Henry  II.  laid  in  his  grave,  than  Richard 
of  England  and  Philip  of  France  remembered  the  vow  which 
had  been  taken  under  the  old  elm  tree,  and  agreed  to  leave 
their  own  kingdoms,  and  go,  as  brothers  in  arms,  to  the  rescue 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 

In  order  to  obtain  money,  Richard  sold  a  great  many  offices 
and  dignities,  as  well  as  lands,  castles,  and  towns  belonging  to 
the  crown  of  England.  When  one  of  his  courtiers  expressed 
surprise  at  his  doing  this,  Richard  exclaimed:  "I  would  sell 
the  city  of  London  itself,  if  I  could  find  a  purchaser!" 
Many  Jews  had  settled  in  England,  and  had  become  wealthy 
by  trade  and  commerce.  From  them,  especially,  it  was 
thought  no  wrong  to  extort  money;  and  large  numbers  were 
robbed  of  their  wealth,  by  the  most  cruel  means,  to  furnish 
the  necessary  supplies  for  this  costly  enterprise.  They  were 
even  tortured  until  they  consented  to  give  up  their  silver  and 
gold. 

The  inhabitants  of  many  of  the  English  towns  belonging  to 
the  king,  taking  advantage  of  this  eagerness  of  their  royal 
nutter  for  money,  united,  and  made  great  efforts  to  raise  a 


RICHARD   I.  81 

sum  sufficient  to  purchase  their  houses,  and  thus  to  become, 
for  the  payment  of  an  annual  rent  to  the  crown,  proprietors 
of  the  towns  they  dwelt  in.  When  Richard  had  obtained 
the  desired  funds,  he  departed,  with  a  gallant  retinue  of 
knights  and  soldiers,  for  the  Holy  Land. 

On  the  8th  of  June,  in  the  year  1191,  after  a  great 
variety  of  adventures,  the  fleet  of  this  crusading  king 
entered  the  bay  of  Acre,  amid  the  sound  of  martial  music,  and 
the  rejoicing  shouts  of  the  Christian  army.  The  latter  stood 
greatly  in  need  of  aid.  They  had  been  besieging  the  Moham- 
medans in  the  town  of  Acre  for  nearly  two  years.  The  town 
had  not  yielded,  and  now  Saladin,  the  famous  Saracen  chief, 
had  gathered  his  army  on  the  heights  of  Carmel,  and  not  only 
helped  the  besieged  city  to  hold  out,  but  so  surrounded  the 
Christian  army,  that  they  were  in  great  danger  of  destruction. 

The  French  had  reached  Acre  before  the  arrival  of  the 
English,  but  they  had  given  no  assistance  to  the  Christians. 
In  four  days  after  Richard,  Coeur-de-Lion,  had  anchored  in 
the  bay,  the  town  of  Acre  surrendered  to  his  valor,  and  the 
army  of  Saladin  was  scattered. 

The  lion-hearted  Richard  won  many  a  bloody  field  in  the 
land  of  the  infidel.  So  great  became  the  terror  of  this  prince's 
name,  that  mothers  used  it  to  frighten  their  children;  and 
long  years  after  Coeur-de-Lion  had  left  the  shores  of  Palestine, 
if  a  horse  started,  his  Syrian  rider  would  exclaim  :  "  Dost 
thou  think  King  Richard  is  in  that  bush  ?" 
1191  Near  Ascalon,  in  the  battle  of  Azotus,  Richard  per- 
to  formed  wondrous  deeds  of  valor,  and  the  conquered 
Saladin  mourned  the  loss  of  seven  thousand  brave 
soldiers.  Richard  recovered  Jafi'a,  the  Joppa  of  the  Bible, 
and  rebuilt  Ascalon,  working  on  its  walls  with  his  own  hands. 
All  along  the  coast  of  Palestine,  from  Gaza  to  Acre,  he  estab- 
lished strong  posts.  He  had  many  personal  encounters  with 
the  Saracens,  and  the  strength  of  arm  with  which  he  dealt 
the  blows  of  his  heavy  battle-axe,  excited  the  wondering  admi- 
ration of  both  friend  and  foe. 

Saladin  was  a  worthy  rival  of  this  crusading  king.     They 


82  H18T0RY    OF   EN(JLAND. 

fought  fiercely  in  battle  with  each  other,  but  are  said  to  have 
been  mutually  courteous  during  the  seasons  of  peace.  When 
llichard  was  ill,  Saladin  sent  to  him  the  cooling  snows  of 
Lebanon,  with  presents  of  damson  plums  and  other  delicious 
fruits  from  the  vale  of  Damascus. 

Coeur-de-Lion  never  entered  Jerusalem.  Led  to  a  neigh- 
boring height,  whence  he  might  look  down  upon  the  Holy 
City,  he  is  said  to  have  raised  his  shield  before  his  eyes, 
exclaiming  that  he  was  unworthy  to  look  upon  the  sacred  spot 
which  he  had  been  unable  to  redeem.  Deserted  by  the  French 
king,  and  delayed  or  thwarted  in  his  plans,  Richard,  before 
he  had  fulfilled  the  desire  of  his  heart,  and  rescued  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  from  the  hand  of  the  infidel,  was  recalled  to  his 
own  kingdom. 

The  English  king,  on  departing  for  the  Holy  Wars,  had 
left  the  government  of  the  realm  in  the  hands  of  a  man  named 
Longchamp.  Richard,  aware  of  the  artful  and  designing  cha- 
racter of  his  brother.  Prince  John,  had  placed  no  authority  in 
his  hands,  but  in  lieu  thereof  had  granted  him  large  possessions 
both  in  England  and  France.  No  sooner  had  the  king  gone, 
however,  than  John  began  to  plot  against  Longchamp,  and,  in 
the  end,  succeeded  so  well,  that  he  drove  him  Irom  the  king- 
dom, and  took  the  direction  of  affairs  into  his  own  hands. 
Before  the  close  of  two  years,  John  found  one  as  treacherous 
as  himself,  to  help  him  in  his  usurpation  of  his  brother's 
rights.  This  was  no  other  than  Philip  of  France,  the  once 
intimate  friend,  and  sworn  brother-in-arms,  of  the  crusading 
Richard.  They  had  quarrelled,  and  become  bitter  foes. 
Philip,  on  leaving  the  Holy  Land,  had  promised  not  to  make 
war  upon  the  English  king,  nor  to  invade  any  of  his  territories 
whilst  the  latter  was  engaged  in  the  Crusades.  In  passing 
through  Rome,  however,  the  French  king  persuaded  the  Pope 
to  absolve  him  from  this  promise ;  and  no  sooner  did  he  return 
to  France,  than  he  joined  John  in  his  evil  designs  on  the 
government  and  territories  of  Richard. 

When  intelligence  of  these  transactions  reached  Palestine, 
the  English  king,  thinking  it  high  time  for  him  to  return  to 


RICHARD  I.  83 

his  own  land,  made  a  truce  with  Saladin,  which  was  to  last 
three  years,  three  months,  three  weeks,  three  days,  and  three 
hours.  In  October  of  the  year  1192,  Richard  bade  farewell 
to  the  Syrian  shore.  From  his  ship  in  the  bay  of  Carmel, 
Coeur-de-Lion  gazed  for  the  last  time  upon  the  sacred  moun- 
tains of  Lebanon.  Turning  towards  those  glorious  hills,  he 
cried :  "  Most  Holy  Land,  I  commend  thee  to  God's  keeping. 
]\Iay  He  give  me  life  and  health  to  return  and  rescue  thee 
from  the  infidel  I'^  It  was  a  difficult  matter  for  Richard  to 
find  a  safe  route  to  England ;  for,  besides  the  king  of  France, 
he  had  many  enemies  in  Europe.  To  avoid  these,  he  sailed 
up  the  Gulf  of  Venice,  intending  to  pass  thence  through 
Styria,  to  some  friendly  German  port,  whence  he  might  em- 
bark for  England. 

Adverse  circumstances  threw  him  out  of  his  route,  and 
after  many  romantic  and  perilous  adventures,  he  found  him- 
self on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  in  Vienna,  the  capital  of  his 
bitterest  enemy, — the  duke  of  Austria.     One  day,  he  sent  his 

young  servant  to  the  market-place  to  purchase  food. 

The  unusual  amount  of  money  in  the  hands  of  the 
boy,  and  his  rich  dress,  had  already  awakened  suspicion ;  for 
the  rumor  had  gone  abroad  that  the  king  of  England  was 
travelling  from  the  Holy  Land  in  disguise.  On  the  day  in 
question,  the  boy  carried  in  his  girdle,  gloves  such  as  were 
worn  only  by  kings  and  princes.  This  confirmed  the  sus- 
picions. The  boy  was  questioned,  and  forced  to  betray  his 
ro3^al  master,  \vno  was  immediately  seized  and  thrown  into 
captivity,  by  the  duke  of  Austria.  When  the  emperor  of  G  er- 
niany  heard  of  this,  he  obliged  the  duke  to  give  up  his  prisoner, 

saying  that  it  was  not  proper  that  a  king  should  be 

held  by  one  of  less  rank  than  an  emperor. 
For  some  mouths  the  world  knew  not  what  had  become  of 
the  king  of  England.  Some  crusaders  reported  that  he  had 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Moors ;  others  that  he  had  been 
seen  in  Italy.  A  beautiful  story  is  told  of  the  manner  in 
which  the  place  of  his  imprisonment  was  at  length  discovered. 
It  is  said  that  Blondel,  King  Richard's  favorite  page,  wandered 


84  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

into  Germany  in  search  of  his  lost  master.  That  at  length  he 
reached  the  castle  in  which  Richard  was  imprisoned,  and  sang 
to  his  guitar,  beneath  its  walls,  one  of  the  troubadour  songs  in 
which  the  crusading  king  delighted.  Immediately,  the  voice 
of  the  captive,  as  he  took  up  and  continued  the  strain,  fell  on 
the  ear  of  the  delighted  page. 

It  is  more  probable,  however,  that  the  secret  of  Richard's 
prison-house  was  betrayed  by  a  letter  sent  from  the  emperor 
of  Germany  to  the  king  of  France.  In  this  letter,  the  emperor 
tells  Philip  that  "  his  enemy  is  loaded  with  chains  in  one  of 
his  castles  of  the  Tyrol,  where  trusty  guards  watch  over  him 
day  and  night  with  drawn  swords."  To  Philip,  say  the  old 
Itistorians,  this  news  was  worth  more  than  a  present  of  gold  or 
of  topaz.  In  England,  and  in  Europe  generally,  it  was 
received  with  indignation. 

At  length,  the  great  exertions  of  the  queen  mother  and  the 
interference  of  the  Pope  prevailed,  and  the  English  king,  after 
nearly  two  years  of  captivity,  was  released  for  the  sum  of  one 
hundred  thousand  silver  marks.  Philip  of  France  had  made 
every  eifort  to  prolong  Richard's  imprisonment.  When  he 
learned  that  these  endeavors  had  failed,  he  sent  the  following 
hurried  message  to  John :  ''  Take  care  of  yourself,  for 
the  devil  is  let  loose."  Prince  John  had  good  reason 
to  dread  his  brother's  return,  for  he  had  been  usurping  the 
government  during  all  the  king's  absence. 

Richard  was  received  by  his  people  with  every  token  of  joy. 
They  were  proud  of  his  fame  as  a  crusader,  ana  they  hoped  for 
better  government  than  they  had  had  in  the  times  of  confusion 
which  followed  his  departure.  When  the  German  barons  who 
entered  London  in  the  king's  train,  saw  the  magnificence  of 
his  Deception,  they  exclaimed :  "  Oh !  king,  if  our  emperor  had 
suspected  this,  you  would  not  have  been  let  oflf  so  lightly." 
Ah !  these  German  barons  saw  only  the  surface.  Could  the 
English  people  and  the  oppressed  Jews  have  spoken,  they 
might  have  told  of  sorrow  and  cruelty  enough  sufi'ered  by  them, 
when  the  Normans  had  gone  about  to  raise  the  enormous  sums 
of  money  required  for  the  king's  ransom. 


RICHARD  I.  85 

Richard  forgave  his  brother  John,  saying,  as  he  did  so : 

"  I  hope  I  shall  as  easily  forget  his  injuries  as  he  will  forget 

my  pardon."     He  soon  raised  an  army  to  punish  the 

to       treacherous  Philip.     The  war  with  France  continued, 

*^®^*   with  the  exception  of  a  few  truces,  until  Richard's 

death,  in  the  year  1199.     Whilst  besieging  the  stronghold 

of  a  rebellious  vassal  in  the  province  of  Aquitaine,   King 

Richard  received  a  mortal  wound. 

Perceiving  his  end  draw  near,  he  sent  for  the  man  who  had 
shot  the  fatal  arrow.  ''  Wretch,"  exclaimed  the  king,  "  what 
have  I  done  unto  thee,  that  thou  shouldst  seek  my  life?" 
"  My  father  and  ray  two  brothers,"  replied  the  undaunted 
man,  "  hast  thou  slain  with  thine  own  hand,  and  myself  thou 
wouldst  hang.  Let  me  die  now;  I  rejoice  in  ridding  earth 
of  such  a  monster."  In  a  few  days  the  lion-heart  was  stilled 
in  death,  and  the  body  of  King  Richard  of  England  was  con- 
signed to  a  tomb  in  the  abbey  church  of  Fontevraud. 

The  vast  sums  of  money  which  Richard  raised  for  his  wars, 
caused  great  oppression  to  his  English  subjects.  When  the 
taxes  were  heaviest,  an  English  merchant,  William,  surnamed 
Longbeard,  stood  up  in  defence  of  the  people.  From 
a  very  famous  street  pulpit,  called  Paul's  Cross,  ho 
preached  to  them  about  their  wrongs,  and,  as  his  enemies  said, 
"  inflamed  the  poor  and  middling  people  with  the  love  ofliherty 
and  happiness'' 

He  complained  to  the  king  of  the  unequal  taxes,  and  Rich- 
ard promised  to  relieve  the  poor,  but  was  either  unable  or 
unwilling  to  keep  his  word.  As  the  English  grew  more  and 
more  attached  to  Longbeard,  whom  they  called  "  the  king  of 
the  poor,"  he  became  an  object  of  hatred  to  the  Normans. 
One  day,  whilst  walking,  with  a  few  followers,  he  was  seized 
by  his  enemies.  He  escaped  from  them  to  a  church.  At 
the  end  of  four  days,  they  burned  the  church,  again  seized 
William  Longbeard,  and  hanged  him,  with  nine  of  his  com- 
panions. 

He  was  the  last  Saxon  whom  we  hear  of,  as  openly  resisting 
the  Norman  rulers  of  the  land.     More  than  one  hundred  and 
8 


86  HISTORY.  OF   ENGLAND. 

thirty  years  were  yet  to  pass,  before  English  and  Normans 
became  as  one  people. 

Questions. -||What  was  the  surname  of  Richard  I.,  and  why  given? 
— By  what  means  did  he  obtain  money  for  his  crusade  ? — How  did 
many  English  burghers  benefit  by  this  ? — Describe  Richard's  recep- 
tion and  conduct  at  Acre. — Mention  his  subsequent  exploits  in  the 
Holy  Land. — What  courtesies  did  he  receive  from  Saladin  ? — De- 
scribe his  visit  to  the  mountains  that  are  round  about  Jerusalem  ? 

Why  had  he  been  unable  to  rescue  the  Holy  Sepulchre  ? — Relate 
the  transactions  which  had  occurred  in  England  during  his  absence. 
— Describe  the  conduct  of  Philip  of  France. — Repeat  Cceur-de-Lion's 
farewell  to  Palestine. — Relate  his  adventures  in  attempting  to  reach 
England. — In  what  way  was  the  place  of  his  captivity  probably 
discovered  ? — What  efforts  were  made  for  his  release  ? — Describe  his 
reception  in  England. — What  wars  employed  the  rest  of  his  reigu  ? 
— Relate  the  manner  of  his  death. — Who  was  William  Longbeard  ? — 
Relate  his  history. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

CONDITION  OF  ENGLAND  IN  THE  TWELFTH  CENTURY. 

FEUDAL   CASTLES — CHIVALnV— ORDERS    OP    KNIGHTHOOD — ARMOR — TOUR- 
NAMENTS— FEASTS — DRESS — LEARNING — ROBIN  HOOD. 

The  castle  of  a  feudal  lord  covered  many  acres  of  ground. 
Its  site  was  frequently  a  rocky  eminence  overlooking  a  stream 
or  river.  Three  principal  divisions  are  included  in  the  idea 
of  a  Norman  castle  of  the  twelfth  century :  The  outer  and 
inner  bailey  or  court,  and  the  keep  or  castle  itself.  The  outer 
circumference  of  the  whole  was  surrounded  by  a  broad  ditch 
called  a  moat.  Within  this  came  a  high  thick  wall,  strength- 
ened by  towers,  and  guarded  by  a  huge  gate.  This  gate  con- 
sisted of  two  massive  iron-plated  doors,  defended  by  a  port- 
cullis or  iron  grate  let  down  from  the  archway  above. 


CONDITION  OF  ENGLAND  IN  THE  TWELFTH  CENTURY.    87 

.  *' Within  its  steepy  limits  pent, 
By  bulwarK,  line,  and  battlement, 
And  flanking  tower  and  laky  flood, 
Guarded  and  garrisoned  it  stood, 
Denying  entrance  or  resort, 
Save  at  the  tall  embattled  port. 
Above  whose  arch  suspended  hung 
Portcullis  spiked  with  iron  prong." 

Marmion. 


The  outer  bailey  contained  the  dwellings  of  the  baron's 
retainers,  the  granaries,  storehouses,  ofl&ces,  &c.  Then  came 
another  strongly-guarded  wall,  within  which  was  the  inner 
bailey,  where  stood  the  chapel,  the  soldiers'  lodgings,  and  the 
keep  or  residence  of  the  baron. 

The  lower  story  of  the  keep  was  a  dark  vaulted  cellar,  often 
used  as  the  prisoner's  dungeon.  The  chambers  of  the  upper 
story  alone  were  furnished  with  windows  and  a  chimney  j  in 
these  the  family  dwelt.  The  windows,  at  best,  were  narrow 
apertures,  for  in  those  days  of  war  and  rapine,  every  man's 
house  was  literally  his  castle,  and  homes  were  built,  not  so 
much  as  abodes  of  social  comfort,  as  for  strongholds  against 
the  assaults  'of  unfriendly  neighbors.  Outside  of  the  walls  of 
the  baron's  castle,  at  the  foot  of  the  hill,  clustered  the  feudal 
village.  In  the  midst  of  the  cottages,  or  huts,  where  dwelt 
the  villains  and  serfs  of  the  lord,  or  upon  the  bank  of  the  little 
river,  stood  the  village  church.  The  curate  of  this  humble 
parish  was  at  first  the  chaplain  of  the  castle,  but,  by  degrees, 
these  two  offices  were  separated,  and  the  pastor  dwelt  beside 
his  church  in  the  midst  of  his  lowly  flock. 

The  castles  of  the  barons  were  the  schools  of  chivalry.  In 
those  days  of  violence  there  were  some  good  and  noble  spirits, 
who  lamented  the  evils  and  cruelties  which  were  committed. 
As  this  sense  of  right  increased,  it  gave  rise  to  the  well-known 
orders  of  chivalry,  which  softened  in  some  degree  the  ferocity 
of  the  middle  ages.  The  true  chivalric  knight  vowed  to 
defend  the  church  and  the  clergy,  to  succor  defenceless  women, 


88  HISTORY   OF  ENGLAND. 

to  protect  the  widow  and  orphan,  and  to  practise  especially  the 
virtues  of  truth  and  courage. 

In  the  baron's  castle,  the  noble  youth  of  the  land  learned, 
in  the  character  of  pages  and  squires,  those  accomplishments 
which  were  to  fit  them  for  the  crowning  honor  of  knighthood. 
Sir  Walter  Scott  thus  describes  the  requisites  of  such  an 
education : — 

"  Behind,  him  rode  two  gallant  squires, 
Of  noble  name,  and  knightly  sires  ; 
They  burned  the  gilded  spurs  to  claim, 
For  well  could  each  a  war-horse  tame. 
Could  draw  the  bow,  the  sword  could  sway, 
And  lightly  bear  the  ring  away ; 
Nor  less  with  courteous  precept  stored, 
Could  dance  in  hall,  or  carve  at  board. 
And  frame  love  ditties  passing  rare, 
And  sing  them  to  a  lady  fair," 

Marmion. 

When  about  to  receive  the  highest  honors  of  chivalry,  the 
young  noble  fasted  and  spent  several  nights  in  prayer  and 
watching  in  a  church  or  chapel.  On  the  appointed  day,  he 
went  in  procession  to  the  church,  castle  hall,  or  court,  where, 
in  presence  of  knights  and  ladies,  the  honor  was  to  be  con- 
ferred. There,  the  candidate  received  his  gilded  spurs,  his 
armor  of  mail,  and  his  sword.  Then  the  king,  prince,  or 
noble,  who  was  to  knight  him,  advanced,  and  giving  the 
kneeling  squire  three  gentle  blows  with  the  flat  of  his  sword, 
said ;  "  In  the  name  of  God,  St.  Michael,  and  St.  George,  I 
make  thee  a  knight;  be  thou  brave,  hardy,  and  loyal." 

Two  orders  of  religious  knights,  known  as  the  Knights  of 
St.  John,  and  Knights  Templars,  grew  out  of  the  singular 
combination  of  religious  and  military  ardor  which  marked  the 
Crusades. 

The  Templars  originated  with  a  few  knights  who  agreed  to 
protect  the  defenceless  pilgrims  to  Jerusalem  from  the  perils 
of  the  way.  They  called  themselves  ''  Poor  fellow-soldiers  of 
Jesus  Christ;"  but,  being  lodged  in  a  dwelling  on  the  site  of 


CONDITION  OF  ENGLAND  IN  THE  TWELFTH  CENTURY.     89 

Solomon's  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  they  soon  became  generally 
known  as  Knights  Templars.  They  professed  to  unite  the 
virtues  of  a  monk  with  the  duties  of  a  warrior. 

The  order  of  Knights  of  St.  John,  or  Knights  Hospitallers, 
began  with  a  few  charitable  monks,  who  opened  a  hospital  for 
sick  and  poor  pilgrims  at  Jerusalem.  The  laudable  zeal  of 
both  these  orders  awakened  the  admiration  of  all  Europe,  and 
the  rich  were  never  weary  of  bestowing  upon  them  manors, 
lands,  houses,  and  money,  until,  from  being  ''poor  fellow- 
soldiers  of  Jesus  Christ,"  these  orders  of  military  monks  and 
religious  knights  became  the  wealthiest  bodies  in  Europe. 
In  London,  their  principal  establishments  were  the  hospital, 
priory,  and  church  of  St.  John,  and  the  beautiful  buildings 
and  circular  church  known  as  the  Temple. 

The  armor  worn  by  the  knights  was  made  of  little  rings  of 
iron  or  steel,  sometimes  sewed  on  leather,  and  so  nicely  linked 
that  they  fitted  the  body  like  a  garment  of  flexible  net-work. 
Indeed  the  word  "  mail,''  as  applied  to  armor,  is  supposed  to 
have  come  from  a  Latin  word  signifying  the  meshes  of  a  net. 
The  armor  was  always  polished,  and  sometimes  beautifully 
gilded.  A  suit  consisted  of  many  pieces,  adapted  to  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  body,  and  familiar  to  all  under  the  names 
of  helmet,  vizor,  breastplate,  shield,  gauntlets,  greaves,  &c. 
Scale  armor  consisted  of  small  plates  of  iron,  lapped  over  each 
other  like  the  scales  of  fishes.  In  later  times,  heavier  armor 
was  made,  called  plate  armor.  On  their  shields  the  knights 
emblazoned  figures  of  animals,  or  emblematical  devices,  fre- 
quently surmounted  by  a  motto.  These  were  called  coats-of- 
arms,  and  were  adopted  in  order  to  distinguish  one  knight 
from  another,  which,  when  all  wore  armor,  would  otherwise 
have  been  well-nigh  impossible. 

"  Well  was  he  armed  from  head  to  heel, 
In  mail  and  plate  of  Milan  steel ; 
But  his  strong  helm  of  mighty  cost, 
Was  all  with  burnished  gold  embossed ; 
*        *        *        a  falcon  on  his  shield, 
Soared  sable  in  an  azure  field  : 
8* 


90  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

The  golden  legend  bore  aright, 

*  Who  checks  at  me  to  death  is  dight.'  "* 

Marmion. 

The  amusements  of  these  days  were  such  as  one  might 
expect,  when  feats  of  arms  were  held  in  such  high  esteem. 
Those  warHke  games,  known  as  jousts  and  tournaments,  came 
into  fashion  in  this  century,  and  the  passion  for  them  conti- 
nued during  several  hundred  years. 

Tournaments  were  generally  proclaimed  by  some  king, 
prince,  or  wealthy  baron,  at  coronations,  or  on  other  great 
occasions.  Noble  knights  and  ladies  were  invited  from  all 
quarters,  and  the  invitation  was  frequently  extended  to  foreign 
countries.  The  chosen  spot  was  fitted  up  with  great  magnifi- 
cence. The  finest  horses,  the  most  splendid  armor,  and  the 
richest  dresses,  graced  the  scene.  When  the  combatants  and 
spectators  had  assembled,  and  every  knightly  ceremony  had 
been  performed,  the  trumpets  sounded,  and  the  signal  for  the 
encounter  was  given.  Then  began  the  furious  combat  of 
mounted  knights,  and  the  ground  resounded  with  the  clanging 
of  armor,  the  shivering  of  spears,  and  the  trampling  of  horses. 

When  the  conflict  ended,  the  names  of  the  bravest  knights 
were  proclaimed  by  heralds,  and  the  lady  in  whose  behalf  the 
chivalrous  victor  had  displayed  his  prowess,  rewarded  him  by 
the  bestowment  of  a  scarf  or  ribbon.  Then  followed  the  ban- 
quet, at  which  minstrels  sang  the  praises  of  valiant  knights 
and  fair  ladies. 

The  banquets  of  the  Normans  were  very  luxurious  and 
costly,  although  more  temperate  than  the  feasts  of  the  Saxons. 
The  boar's  head  was  considered  a  dish  for  the  royal  table 
alone ;  and  was  brought  in  amid  the  sounding  of  trumpets,  and 
placed  on  the  board  with  every  token  of  respect.  The  peacock 
graced  the  feasts  of  chivalry.  After  being  roasted,  this  bird 
was  decked  again  with  its  beautiful  plumage,  and  a  sponge 

*  Dight  means  prepared.  This  was  the  motto  over  the  device 
of  the  falcon  on  the  knight's  shield. 


CONDITION  OF  ENGLAND  IN  THE  TWELFTH  CENTURY.    91 

dipped  in  burning  spirits  of  wine  was  placed  in  its  bill.  Its 
appearance  on  the  banquet-table  was  a  signal  for  valorous 
youths  to  vow  some  deed  of  knightly  daring. 

The  office  of  cook  in  great  families  was  frequently  given  in 
fief,  and  we  hear  of  English  estates  being  held  by  the  sole 
tenure  of  dressing  some  dish  peculiarly  agreeable  to  the  taste 
of  the  feudal  lord.  The  Anglo-Normans  had  but  two  stated 
meals  a  day,  as  a  proverb  common  among  them  bears  witness : 

"  Lever  a  cinque,  diner  a  neuf, 
Souper  a  cinque,  coucher  a  neuf, 
Fait  vivre  d'aus  nonante  et  neuf." 

**  To  rise  at  five,  to  dine  at  nine, 
To  sup  at  five,  to  bed  at  nine, 
Makes  a  man  live  to  ninety-nine." 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  peculiarities  in  the  dress  of  the 
people  in  this  century  was  their  long-peaked  shoes.  They 
were  often  stuffed  and  twisted  into  the  shape  of  a  ram's  horn, 
or  a  scorpion's  tail.  The  clergy  opposed  this  ridiculous  fashion 
in  vain,  as  also  that  of  the  long  curled  hair  of  courtiers.  On 
one  occasion,  however,  a  Norman  bishop  preached  before 
Henry  I.  and  his  court,  against  long  hair,  with  such  effect, 
that  both  monarch  and  nobles  consented  to  cut  off  the  highly- 
prized  ornament.  Fearing  lest  they  should  change  their 
minds,  the  bishop  forthwith  produced  a  pair  of  shears,  and 
with  his  own  hands  severed  the  offending  locks.  This  did 
not,  however,  put  an  end  to  the  fashion,  which,  together  with 
the  long-pointed  shoes,  continued  to  annoy  the  clergy  a  cen- 
tury later. 

The  Norman  clergy  had  a  greater  regard  for  learning  than 
the  Saxon  churchmen ;  and  when  the  former  settled  in  Eng- 
land, monasteries,  with  their  schools  and  libraries,  arose  in 
great  number.  Learning,  allowing  for  a  few  distinguished  ex- 
cepfions,  was  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  clergy.  Henry  I. 
won  his  surname  of  Beauclerc  from  his  fine  scholarship,  and 
his  son-in-law,  Geoffrey  of  Anjou,  was  famed  for  his  learning. 


92  HISTORY   OP  ENGLAND. 

Ignorance  prevailed  among  the  great  mass  of  the  laity,  nor  did 
the  nobles  form  an  exception.  On  one  occasion,  Henry  II. 
sent  an  embassy  to  the  Pope,  consisting  of  several  bishops  and 
four  of  the  great  barons  of  the  realm.  The  clergy  addressed 
the  pontiff  in  Latin,  and  when  they  had  finished,  one  of  the 
barons  said  in  English :  "  We,  who  are  illiterate  laymen,  do 
not  understand  one  word  of  what  the  bishops  have  spoken  to 
your  holiness."  This,  at  a  time  when  Latin  was  almost  the 
only  written  language,  showed  great  ignorance. 

During  the  twelfth  century,  the  schools  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  began  to  rise  into  importance,  and  to  take  the 
name  of  universities.  There  was  also  a  celebrated  school  at 
St.  Alban's,  and  several  in  London,  which  in  this  century 
became  the  capital  of  England.  To  many  distinguished 
writers  of  this  age  we  are  indebted  for  interesting  and  faithful 
histories.  Among  these  may  be  named  Henry  of  Huntingdon, 
William  of  Malmsbury,  and  Gerald  Barry,  called  more  com- 
monly by  his  Latin  name,  Giraldus  Cambrensis,  the  latter 
name  meaning  "  of  Cambria,"  or  Wales,  of  which  country  he 
was  a  native. 

The  condition  of  the  country  during  this  period  was,  for  the 
Norman  conquerors  especially,  extremely  insecure.  The  bold 
outlaws  who  had  dwelt  in  the  forests  ever  since  the  days  of  the 
conquest,  grew  especially  famous  in  the  reign  of  King  Richard 
and  his  successor,  under  Robin  Hood,  who  is  said  to  have  been 
none  other  than  the  outlawed  Robert,  Earl  of  Huntingdon. 
In  the  glades  of  Sherwood  Forest,  Robin  Hood  and  his  merry 
men,  dressed  in  Lincoln  green,  with  bugle-horn  and  silver 
baldrick,  hunted,  robbed,  and  ruled  at  will. 

Professed  champions  of  the  English  race,  they  are  said  never 
to  have  taken  a  penny  or  done  a  wrong  to  the  Saxon ;  but,  on 
the  contrary,  that  the  wealth  of  which  they  robbed  many  a 
Norman  baron,  was  spent  in  relieving  the  wants  of  their 
oppressed  countrymen.  Certain  it  is,  that  the  names  of  Robin 
Hood  and  the  bold  outlaws  of  Sherwood  Forest,  were^ong 
loved  and  revered  by  the  English,  and  they  still  live  in  many 


CONDITION  OP  ENGLAND  IN  THE  TWELFTH  CENTURY.    93 

a  stirring  ballad.     The  following  may  serve  as  a  specimen 
of  these  popular  compositions  : 

"  Robin  wislit  well  unto  the  king. 
And  prayed  still  for  his  health, 
And  never  practiced  anything 
Against  the  commonwealth. 

Only,  because  he  was  undone 

By  the  cruel  clergy  then, 
He  did  all  he  could  think  upon, 

To  v^x  such  kind  of  men. 

With  wealth  that  he  by  roguery  got, 

Eight  almshouses  he  built, 
Thinking  thereby  to  purge  the  blot 

Of  blood  which  he  had  spilt. 

Nor  would  he  injure  husbandmen, 

That  toil  at  cart  and  plough ; 
For  well  he  knew  wer't  not  for  them, 

To  live  no  man  knew  how. 

Full  thirteen  years,  and  something  more, 

These  outlaws  liv^d  thus  ; 
Feared  of  the  rich,  loved  of  the  poor: 

A  thing  most  marvellous. 

In  those  days  men  more  barbarous  were, 

And  liv^d  less  in  awe ; 
Now,  God  be  thanked,  the  people*  fear 

More  to  offend  the  law." 

Richard,  Cceur-de-Lion,  on  his  return  to  England,  besieged 
and  carried  Nottingham  Castle,  the  last  stronghold  which  held 
for  the  treacherous  John.  He  then  made  an  excursion  into 
Sherwood  Forest,  which,  stretching  from  Nottingham  into 
Yorkshire,  over  several  hundred  square  miles,  presented  the 
largest  and  most  beautiful  tract  of  woods  in  England.  Here 
he    is   said   to  have  encountered  the  famous  Robin   Hood. 


94  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

Ballad  and  romance  weave  many  a  pretty  tale  of  the  meeting 
between  the  king  of  England  and  the  bold  8axon  outlaws, 
yho,  ''  ranging  the  forest  merry  and  free/'  escaped  the  op- 
pression of  the  Norman  sway. 

"  They  showed  such  brave  archery, 
By  cleaving  stick  and  wands, 
That  the  king  did  say,  "  Such  men  as  they 
Live  not  in  many  lands." 

Questions.— Describe  the  castle  of  a  feudal  lord. — Describe  the 
feudal  village. — State  the  origin  of  chivalry. — What  was  the  vow 
of  a  knight? — Describe  the  accomplishments  of  a  squire. — Describe 
the  ceremony  of  knighting. 

Relate  the  origin  of  the  Knights  Templars  and  Knights  of  St.  John. 
— What  is  told  of  their  subsequent  history  ? — Describe  the  diiferent 
species  of  armor  worn. — What  gave  rise  to  the  science  of  heraldry? 
— Describe  the  tournament. — Give  some  account  of  the  banquets 
of  this  age. — What  is  said  with  respect  to  their  ordinary  meals? 

Describe  the  prominent  peculiarities  of  dress  in  this  age. — What 
is  said  of  learning  ? — What  instance  is  given  in  proof  of  the  general 
illiterateness  of  this  period  ? — What  institutions  of  learning  are 
mentioned  ? — Give  the  names  of  some  distinguished  writers  of  this 
age. — Relate  what  is  told  of  the  Saxon  outlaws. — Name  the  most 
famous  of  them. — Who  is  he  supposed  to  have  been  ? — What  is  told 
of  Richard  I.  in  this  connection  ? 


KING  JOHN.  95 


PART  V. 
ENGLAND  DURING  THE  THIRTEENTH  CENTURY. 

JOHN— HENRY  III— EDWARD  I. 

A.  D.  1199—1307. 

"  Awed  by  his  nobles,  by  his  commons  cursed, 
The  oppressor  ruled  tyrannic  where  he  durst, 
Stretched  o'er  the  poor  and  church  his  iron  rod, 
And  served  alike  his  vassals  and  his  God." 

Pope. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

KING  JOHN. 


WARS     AGAINST    PRINCE    ARTHTTR — QUARRELS     WITH     THE     POPE — KA6NA 
CHARTA — CIVIL    STRIFE. 

The  thirteenth  century  is  a  very  important  and  interesting 
one  in  English  history,  because  it  witnessed  the  signing  of 
Magna  Charta,  that  great  safeguard  of  English  liberty.  The 
distinguishing  characteristic  of  this  charter  is,  that  it  grants 
equal  civil  rights  to  all  classes  of  freemen,  thus  breaking  the 
bonds  of  oppression  under  which  the  feudal  vassal  had  so  long 
suffered. 

By  Magna  Charta,  the  king  and  every  feudal*  lord  were 
forbidden  to  exact  from  their  vassals  the  hard  services  and 
enormous  sums  of  money  which  they  had  been  in  the  habit 
of  requiring.  They  were  forbidden  to  tyrannize  over  their 
wards,  in  obliging  them  to  marry  against  their  will.  This 
species  of  tyranny  had  been  carried  to  such  exces^,  that  no 
less  than  seven  thousand  pounds  were  paid  to  Henry  II.  by 


96  HISTORY   OP  ENGLAND. 

Maud,  Countess  of  Warwick,  that  she  might  be  allowed  to 
marry  whom  she  pleased.  Lucia,  Countess  of  Chester,  the 
ward  of  King  Stephen,  paid  nearly  as  great  a  sum  to  be  per- 
mitted to  remain  a  widow  for  five  years. 

The  freedom  and  rights  of  the  city  of  London  and  other 
towns  were  secured  to  them,  and  the  forest  laws  were  miti- 
gated. No  freeman  was  to  be  unlawfully  imprisoned  or  ban- 
ished merely  at  the  will  of  his  feudal  lord,  nor  was  justice  in 
regard  to  a  prisoner  to  be  denied  or  delayed.  As  his  person 
was  not  to  be  imprisoned  at  the  will  of  another,  so  also  was 
not  the  property  of  a  freeman  to  be  seized,  nor  any  excessive 
fine  laid  upon  it  In  no  case  were  the  implements  necessary 
to  each  man's  employment  or  calling  to  be  taken  in  fine. 
The  peasant  was  not  to  lose  his  plough  or  wagon,  or  tools,  nor 
the  merchant  his  wares,  the  scholar  his  books,  nor  the  gentle- 
man his  arms.  In  Wales,  the  harp  was  not  to  be  taken  in 
fine.  To  all  classes  of  freemen,  the  liberty  of  person  and 
property  was  secured.  No  one  thought  of  bettering  the  con- 
dition of  the  villains  and  serfs.  They  are  only  alluded  to 
once  in  this  instrument,  where  they  are  spoken  of  among  other 
property  of  the  feudal  ward,  which  was  not  to  be  wasted. 

The  state  of  social  freedom  and  security  obtained  by  Magna 
Charta,  was  a  great  advance  upon  those  rude  and  lawless 
times,  when  the  vassal  lay  for  months,  it  might  be  for  years, 
in  his  lord's  dungeons,  without  the  hope  of  justice,  or  com- 
pelled to  purchase  his  true  and  lawful  right  by  the  sacrifice 
of  nearly  all  his  property.  On  those  bad  times,  too,  when  the 
peasant  and  the  tradesman  were  liable  to  be  robbed  of  all 
their  earnings,  and  to  become  miserable  outcasts. 

This  great  charter  of  English  liberty  was  given  in  the  reign 
of  King  ^ohn,  who  succeeded  his  brother  Richard  on  the 
throne  of  England  in  the  year  1199. 

He  was  as  bad  and  treacherous  a  king  as  he  had  been  a  sou 

and  brother.     The  first  part  of  his  reign  was  spent  in 

wars  against  the  king  of  France,  who  had  taken  part 

with  Arthur  of  Bretagne,  the  rightful  heir  to  the  throne,  being 

the  son  of  Geofi"rey,  King  John's  elder  brother.      Arthur's 


KING  JOHN.  97 

grandfather,   Henry  II.,  was  much  attached  to  the  .young 
prince,  and  would  have  conferred  upo     him  his  own  name, 
but  the  Bretons,  among  whom  he  was  born,  insisted  upon 
calling  him  Arthur,  after  the  old  British  hero  who  had  fought 
so  bravely  against  the  Saxons.     The  bards  of  Wales 
and    Brittafly  still   repeated    the   prophecies  of  the 
fabulous  Merlin,  about  Prince  Arthur's  coming  back  to  restore 
them  to  freedom.     This  Celtic  people  loved  the  name  of  their 
national  hero,  and  hoped  that  the  young  Arthur  might  free 
them  from  both  French  and  English  rule. 
1199         ^^'^s  war,  between  nephew  and  uncle,  desolated  for 
to       nearly  three  years  the  provinces  of  Brittany  and  Nor- 
mandy.    At  length,  in  1202,  Arthur  was  taken  pri- 
soner by  King  John,  and  in  a  short  time  he  disappeared. 
Many  a  horrible  tradition  of  the  manner  of  his  death  is  related. 
The  scene  which  Sliakspeare  so  pathetically  describes,  as  oc- 
curring between  Prince  Arthur  and  Hubert  de  Burgh,  his 
gaoler,  gives  a  painful,  but  no  doubt  a  correct  idea,  of  the 
cruel  means  which  the  wicked  king  took  to  rid  himself  of  his 
innocent  nephew. 

The  crime  of  the  English  king  was  visited  upon  his  own 
guilty  head.  It  was  in  1203  that  the  death  of  Arthur  took 
place  Three  years  later.  King  John  was  driven  out  of 
France  : — of  the  duchy  of  Normandy,  for  nearly  three  hun- 
dred years  the  heritage  of  English  kings,  not  a  rood  of  land  re- 
mained; and  of  all  the  fair  French  provinces  which  Henry  TI. 
had  ruled,  but  a  few  castles  were  left  to  acknowledge  the 
sovereignty  of  his  weak  son. 

King  John  was  about  as  unwise  as  he  was  wicked. 
Whilst  despised  by  his  own  subjects,  and  at  war  with 
France,  he  provoked  another  powerful  enemy,  by  quarrelling 
with  the  Pope.  Innocent  III.,  at  that  time  Pope,  had  ap- 
pointed Stephen  Langton,  a  gifted  Englishman,  archbishop 
of  Canterbury.  King  John,  unmindful  of  the  result  of  the 
struggle  between  the  church  and  the  crown,  in  a  former  and  a 
firmer  reign,  refused  to  make  Langton  archbishop;  and  drove 
9  G 


98 


HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 


the  monks  of  Canterbury  from  the  land,  because  they  held  to 
the  Pope's  appointment. 
1308.  "^^^^  Pope,  in  order  to  punish  the  king,  laid  Eng- 
land under  an  interdict : — that  is,  he  interdicted,  or 
forbade,  the  services  and  observances  of  the  church.  The 
country  everywhere  wore  an  aspect  of  mourning.  The  chimes 
of  the  church-bells  were  hushed;  the  churches  were  closed; 
the  images  and  pictures  of  saints  were  shrouded  in  black  ;  the 
dead  were  laid,  without  a  prayer,  in  uncons^crated  ground; 
no  marriages  were  performed,  and  everything  was  made  to 
appear  as  though  the  curse  of  God  rested  upon  the  land. 

Although  this  sentence  plunged  England  in  gloom,  it  made 

but  little  impression  upon  the  heart  of  the  selfish  king.     He 

1309    ®^^ploy®<i  *^G  next  few  years  in  successful  expeditions 

to       against  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Wales,  and  in  extorting 

■   from   his   subjects    large  sums  of  money  for  these 

enterprises. 

Finding  that  King  John  remained  insensible  to  the  inter- 
dict, the  Pope  pronounced  against  him  a  still  more  fearful 
sentence.  It  was  called  excommunication — or  a  cutting  off 
from  the  communion  and  fellowship  of  Christians.  A  person 
excommunicated  by  the  Pope  was  considered  unholy :  no  one 
was  allowed  to  go  near  him,  to  minister  to  his  wants  or  to  offer 
him  any  service. 

For  a  king  to  be  excommunicated,  was  particularly  dreadful 
in  those  days,  for  it  was  followed,  as  in  the  case  of  King 
John,  by  a  sentence  of  dethronement.  The  Pope,  claiming 
power  from  God  for  such  a  purpose,  not  only  declared  the 
subjects  of  an  excommunicated  sovereign  free  from  their 
allegiance,  but  pronounced  a  blessing  on  any  one  who  would 
take  his  life.  Shakspfeare  does  not  overdraw  the  picture  of 
papal  arrogance,  when  he  makes  Pandulph,  the  Pope's  legate, 
Bay  to  King  John, 

"Then  by  the  lawful  power  that  I  hold, 
Thou  shalt  stand  cursed  and  excommunicate, 
And  blessed  shall  he  be  that  doth  revolt 
From  his  allegiance  to  a  heretic  ; 


KING    JOHN.  99 

And  meritorious  shall  that  hand  be  called, 
Canonized  and  worshipped  as  a  saint, 
That  takes  away  by  any  secret  course 
Thy  hateful  life." 

This  fearful  sentence  appalled  even  the  obdurate 
King  John,  and  he  prepared  to  make  the  humblest 
submission  to  the  church  of  Rome.  He  laid  the  crown  of 
England  at  the  foot  of  the  Pope's  legate.  He  promised  to 
make  Langton  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  to  pay  the  Pope  a 
yearly  tribute  of  one  thousand  silver  marks,  and  to  hold 
England  as  a  fief  of  the  Holy  See.  The  sentence  of  interdict 
and  excommunication  was  then  recalled. 

About  this  time  occurred  the  first  engagement  between  the 
naval  forces  of  France  and  England;  the  occasion  of  which 
was  as  follows.  Ferrand,  an  Earl  of  Flanders,  and  the  most 
powerful  vassal  of  France,  demanded  the  restitution  of  certain 
Flemish  towns,  which  had  been  annexed  to  the  possessions  of 
the  French  crown.  On  the  refusal  of  Philip,  Ferrand  with- 
drew his  aid  from  the  expedition  which  that  monarch  was 
organizing  for  the  invasion  of  England.  The  arms  of  France 
were  now  turned  against  the  rebellious  vassal.  The  earl, 
however,  nothing  daunted,  invoked  the  succor  of  England, 
and  the  fleet  which  John  had  collected  to  repel  the  French 
invasion,  set  sail  for  the  coast  of  Flanders.  It  bore  to  the 
assistance  of  the  earl  seven  hundred  English  knights  and  a 
large  body  of  infantry.  The  French  armament  lay  at  anchor 
on  the  coast.  It  was  three  times  as  numerous  as  the  English, 
but  many  of  the  soldiers  and  sailors  were  on  shore,  engaged  in 
plundering  and  laying  waste  the  neighboring  districts. 

This  first  naval  encounter  between  the  two  nations,  whose 
fleets  have  since  met  in  hostile  conflict  in  nearly  every  quarter 
of  the  globe,  resulted  in  complete  victory  to  the  English. 
Three  hundred  prizes  were  sent  home,  and  great  joy  difi'used 
throughout  the  nation. 

The  barons  of  England,  wearied  by  the  weakness,  tyranny, 
and  injustice  of  the  king,  formed  a  league  against  him.  In  a 
council  held  by  them  in  London,  Archbishop  Langton  read 


100  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

the  charter  which  Henry  I.  had  given  at  the  time  of  his 
accession.  The  barons  determined  to  claim  the  rights  therein 
granted,  "and  to  conquer  or  die  in  support  of  their  liberties." 
King  John  endeavored  to  resist  the  will  of  his  subjects,  by 
calling  to  his  aid  foreign  soldiers,  and  by  begging  the  inter- 
ference of  the  Pope.  The  latter  wrote  a  threatening  letter  to 
the  archbishop ;  but  this  true-hearted  Englishman  wavered 
not,  and  gatherin«r  around  him  the  barons  and  free 

1215.  '  o  G 

burghers  of  England,  he  persisted  in  claiming  their 
rights.  Joined  by  lords,  knights,  and  citizens  from  all  parts 
of  the  kingdom,  they  grew  into  a  powerful  body,  calling  them- 
selves "  the  army  of  God  and  Holy  Church."  The  king  was 
forced  to  yield. 

Permitting  them  to  name  a  time  and  place  of  meeting,  the 
barons  answered  :  "  Let  the  day  be  the  fifteenth  of  June, — 
the  place,  Runnymead."  The  name  had  been  given  in  old 
Saxon  times,  and  it  signified  meadow  of  council.  In  this 
quiet  green  spot  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames,  not  far  from  the 
Btately  height  crowned  by  the  towers  of  Windsor  Castle,  met 
that  great  council  of  barons,  with  their  king,  to  establish  that 
precious  safeguard  of  English  freedom,  known  as  Magna 
Charta. 

The  Great  Charta  was  signed  by  the  monarch  and  his 
subjects,  but  treachery  was  in  the  heart  of  the  former.  No 
sooner  was  the  deed  done,  than  King  John  hastened  to 
Windsor  Castle,  and  there  gave  way  to  paroxysms  of  rage. 
Withdrawing  from  the  society  of  his  nobles,  he  went  to  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  where  he  spent  his  time  among  the  fishermen 
and  mariners  from  foreign  parts,  adopting  their  manners  and 
endeavoring  by  every  means -to  draw  foreign  recruits  to  his 
aid.  Troops  of  Brabanters  and  Flemings  stole  secretly  into 
England,  and  the  tyrant-king  became  strong  enough  to  make 
war  on  those  subjects  to  whom,  but  a  few  months  previous,  he 
had  given  promises  of  liberty. 

The  kinii'dom  was  devastated  by  foreign  soldiers, 

until  the  barons,  in  despair,  invited  Prince  Louis,  the 

son  of  the  French  king,  to  their  aid.     This  young  prince  had 


KING  JOHN.  101 

married  a  niece  of  King  John,  and  in  her  right  he  laid  claim 
to  the  English  throne.  With  the  aid  of  Louis,  the  barons 
defeated  King  John,  and  many  towns  surrendered  to  the 
prince. 

Like  the  early  Norman  conquerors,  Louis  began  to  confer 
manors  and  estates  on  his  own  French  followers,  little  mindful 
of  the  interests  of  the  English  barons.  This  opened  the  eyes 
of  the  English  to  the  folly  of  calling  in  foreign  aid.  Many 
deserted  the  French  prince,  and  the  royal  cause  began  to 
strengthen,  when  King  John  died — a  circumstance  which 
greatly  rejoiced  his  subjects,  by  whom  he  was  universally 
hated  and  despised. 

Questions. — Mention  the  distinguishing  feature  of  Magna  Charta. 
— Name  the  various  benefits  secured  by  this  instrument. — To  whom 
alone  were  these  rights  granted? — Repeat  the  only  mention  made 
of  villains  in  Magna  Charta. 

What  was  the  character  of  King  John  ? — Relate  the  events  of  the 
first  three  years  of  his  reign. — What  reverses  occurred  after  the 
death  of  Arthur  ? — Recite  the  ground  of  John's  quarrel  with  the 
Pope. — What  sentences  were  issued  against  him  by  the  pontifi"? — 
Describe  the  interdict, — The  excommunication. — How  did  the  latter 
sentence  afi'ect  John  ? — Relate  the  terms  of  his  submission  to  Rome. 

In  what  way  did  the  barons  show  their  dislike  to  the  king  ? — By 
whom  were  they  supported  ? — To  whom  did  the  king  appeal  ? — With 
what  result  ? — How  did  Langton  treat  the  Pope's  interference  ? — 
Describe  the  further  proceedings  of  the  barons. — When  and  where 
was  Magna  Charta  signed  ? — Describe  King  John's  subsequent  con- 
duct.— To  whom  did  the  barons  appeal  ? — With  what  result? — What 
evil  ensued  ?— By  what  circumstance  was  this  strjfe  terminated  ? 


9* 


102  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

HENRY  III. 

EARL  PEMBROKE — HENRY's  FAVORITES — WARS  OP  THE  BARONS. 

The  church  of  Rome  had  taken  part  with  the  king  of  Eng- 
land against  the  French  prince  and  the  barons.     And 
now  that  King  John  was  dead,  the  Pope's  legate 
crowned  John's  eldest  son,  Henry,  a  boy  ten  years  of  age. 

Earl  Pembroke  was  appointed  protector  of  the  kingdom. 
By  his  valor  and  wisdom,  order  was  in  some  measure  restored ; 
confidence  in  the  royal  authority  was  revived,  and  at  the  end 
of  a  year,  Prince  Louis  had  given  up  all  hope  of  obtaining  the 
English  crown,  and  had  gone  back  to  France.  In  May  of  the 
year  1219,  the  good  Karl  Pembroke  was  laid  in  his  tomb  in 
the  church  of  the  Knights  Templars.  His  wise  hand  no 
longer  guided  the  helm  of  state,  and  the  government  was 
divided  among  those  who  quarrelled  as  to  who  should  have 
the  largest  share. 

This  state  of  thinsrs  was  but  little  bettered  when 

1223 

the  young  and  incapable  Henry  took  the  power  into 
his  own  hands.  He  allowed  himself  to  be  governed  by  foreign 
and  unworthy  favorites,  which  evil  was  greatly  increased  in 
1236,  by  his  ma.vri«ge  with  Eleanor,  daughter  of  the  Count 
of.  Provence. ;  -She  came  into  the  kingdom  with  crowds  of 
French  followers,  on  whom  the  weak  Henry  bestowed  riches 
iuid'ofp'coiSi; :     ■  ;  ■ '.     • 

The  king's  council,  which  had  now  begun  to  take  the  name 
of  ^;«r//V7?7ic^??<,  was  summoned  frequently  by  Henry  III.,  who 
demanded  of  it  supplies  of  money  for  the  wars  which  he 
carried  on  with  France.  The  parliament  granted  supplies, 
only  on  condition  that  the  king  should  promise  to  observe 
Magna  Charta,  and  to  dismiss  his  foreign  favorites.     On  one 


HENRY  III.  103 

solemn  occasion,  Henry  met  the  barons,  prelates,  and 
abbots  at  Westminster  Hall.  The  clergy  held  lighted 
tapers  in  their  hands,  whikt  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
solemnly  pronounced  sentence  of  excommunication  on  all  who 
should  either  directly  or  indirectly  go  contrary  to  the  charters 
of  the  kingdom.  When  the  sentence  had  been  uttered,  bish- 
ops and  abbots  threw  their  tapers  on  the  earth,  and  as  the 
smoke  of  the  extinguished  candles  went  up,  they  exclaimed : 
''May  the  soul  of  every  one  who  incurs  this  sentence  so  be 
extinguished  in  hell  I"  To  this,  the  king  replied  :  "  So  help 
me  Grod !  I  will  keep  these  charters  inviolate,  as  I  am  a  man, 
as  I  am  a  Christian,  as  I  am  a  knight,  and  as  I  am  a  king, 
crowned  and  anointed."  And  yet,  for  all  the  solemnity  of 
these  vows,  they  were  quickly  broken ;  for  when  the  fear  of 
God  does  not  rule  in  the  heart,  the  words  of  the  lips,  however 
solemnly  uttered,  are  but  little  to  be  trusted. 

Despite  all  the  diflficulties  which  Henry  had  in  raising 
money,  he  engaged  in  an  expensive  foreign  enter- 
prise. The  Pope,  as  feudal  superior,  claimed  the 
disposal  of  the  crown  of  Sicily.  Not  having  a  force  sufficient 
to  make  good  his  claim  against  the  king  and  people  of  that 
country,  who  disputed  it,  the  pontiiF  offered  the  rebellious 
kingdom  to  several  European  princes,  on  condition  that  they 
would  subdue  and  hold  it  as  a  fief  of  the  Holy  See.  Among 
others  to  whom  this  offer  was  made,  was  Richard,  Earl  of 
Cornwall,  a  brother  of  the  English  king.  The  earl  declined 
the  enterprise,  telling  the  Pope  that  he  might  as  well  say : 
"  I  make  you  a  present  of  the  moon — step  up  to  the  sky  and 
take  it  down  !" 

King  Henry  had  not  the  wisdom  of  his  brother,  and  ac- 
cepted the  crown  for  his  son,  Prince  Edmund.  The  latter 
never  received  anything  but  the  empty  title  of  king  of  Sicily, 
but  the  Pope  demanded  of  the  English  king  one  hundred 
thousand  pounds  for  the  expenses  of  the  enterprise.  Henry 
dared  not  refuse  a  creditor  who  could  lay  his  kingdom  under 
an  interdict,  or  excommunicate  and  dethrone  its  sovereign. 
He   therefore    committed   fresh   acts   of  oppression    to  raise 


104  HISTORY    OF    ENCILAND. 

money.  This  time  the  churches  of  England  and  Ireland 
suiicred  so  much,  that  the  clergy  became  almost  as  hostile  to 
the  king  as  the  barons  were.  One  bishop,  who  was  threatened 
with  the  loss  of  his  office,  in  case  he  would  not  contribute  to 
the  debt,  boldly  threatened,  if  they  took  the  mitre  from  his 
head,  to  supply  its  place  with  a  helmet. 

The  disorders  and  oppressions  of  the  realm  at  length 
reached  such  a  height,  that  the  chief  barons,  with  the 
Earl  of  Leicester  at  their  head,  forced  Henry  to  place  the  con- 
trol of  the  kingdom  into  the  hands  of  a  committee  of  twenty- 
four  bi.^hops  and  nobles,  twelve  to  be  chosen  by  the  king,  and 
1263     twelve  by  the  barons.    This  committee  soon  quarrelled 
to       among  themselves,  and  in  a  few  years  the  country  was 

plunged  into  all  the  miseries  of  civil  war. 
At  first  the  barons  prevailed,  and  King  Henry  was  made 
prisoner  by  the  Earl  of  Leicester.  Finally,  however,  in  the 
year  1265,  the  royal  cause,  upheld  by  Prince  Edward,  gained 
a  great  victory  at  Evesham.  Earl  Leicester  was  killed  in  the 
battle,  and,  at  the  end  of  two  years,  the  barons  seem  to  have 
given  up  the  struggle. 

When  the  spirit  of  rebellion  was  subdued,  Prince  Edward 
took  the  cross,  and  departed,  with  Louis  IX.,  king  of  France, 
for  the  Holy  Wars.  Two  years  after  his  departure,  his  father, 
King  Henry,  closed  his  long. life  of  sixty-eight  years,  during 
fifty-six  of  which  he  had  been  called  a  king.  His  body  was 
laid    in    state   in   the  abbey  church  of  St.    Peter's. 

1S70. 

Over  the  lifeless  remains  the  barons  swore  fealty  to 
the  absent  Edward. 

Questions. — When  and  by  whom  was  Henry  III.  crowned  ? — 
Describe  the  character  of  the  protector. — State  the  results  of  his 
government. — What  was  the  condition^  of  the  kingdom  after  his 
death? — What  new  evil  did  the  king's  marriage  inflict?— What 
demands  did  Henry  make  of  his  parliament  ? — On  what  condition 
were  they  granted  ?— Describe  the  solemnity  attending  this  promise 
on  one  occasion. 

Relate  the  foreign  enterprise  in  which  the  king  engaged. — What 
means  did  he   take  to  raise  money  ? — What  was  the  result  ? — De- 


EDWARD   I.  105 

Bcribe  the  conduct  of  Leicester  and  the  barons. — To  what  did  this 
lead  ? — To  which  side  did  victory  first  incline  ? — Which  party  finally 
prevailed  ? — What  expedition  was  then  undertaken  by  Prince  Ed- 
ward ? — What  event  occurred  two  years  subsequently  ? 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

EDWARD  I. 

HIS     RETUnK    FROM    HOLT    LAND  —  CONQUEST    OF    WALES  —  INYASION    OP 
SCOTLAND. 

Prince  Edward  was  in  the  Holy  Land  when  his  father 
died.     A  great  and  perilous  distance  lay  between  the 
new  monarch  and  his  crown.     And  yet,  though  ex- 
posed to  all  the  dangers  of  war,  and  the  yet  greater  dangers 
of  his  long  homeward  journey,  perhaps  no  king  since  the  con- 
quest had  so  tranquilly  succeeded  to  his  royal  inheritance. 

Having  revived  the  glory  of  Coeur-de-Lion  on  the  plains 
of  Palestine,  Edward  made  a  ten  years'  truce  with  the  Sara- 
cens, and  prepared  to  return  to  England.  In  Italy 
he  met  the  messengers  bearing  to  him  the  tidings  of 
his  father's  death.  He  did  not  hasten  homeward,  but  jour- 
neyed leisurely  through  Italy  and  France,  everywhere  receiv- 
ing marks  of  high  honor.  Presents  of  beautiful  horses,  of 
splendid  raiment,  and  treasures  of  gold,  silver,  and  jewels  were 
lavished  upon  this  last  royal  champion  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 
In  Flanders,  Edward  lingered  to  settle  a  commercial  dis- 
pute, which  had  lasted  many  years,  between  that  country  and 
England.  The  English  were  in  the  habit  of  selling  wool  to 
the  Flemings,  and  receiving  in  return  the  dyed  cloth.  This 
had  been  a  great  trade  between  the  tAvo  countries,  but  since  the 
dispute  had  arisen,  the  English  sent  no  more  wool  to  Flanders, 
and  as  they  did  not  understand  dyeing  it  themselves,  they 
were  obliged  to  wear  their  coats  of  the  original  color  of  the 
fleece.      The   looms   of  their  Flemish   neighbors  meanwhile 


106  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

were  idle,  for  want  of  the  raw  material,  so  that  the  quarreJ  was 
a  foolish  and  hurtful  one  to  both  countries.  The  Countess 
of  Flanders,  who  had  begun  the  difficulty,  offea-ed  a  public 
apology  to  the  English  king :  harmony  was  restored,  and  the 
trade  went  on  as  before. 

In  the  year  1274,  after  an  absence  of  four  years,  Ed- 
ward  returned  to  his  kingdom.  He  was  warmly  wel- 
comed by  his  subjects.  *'  In  London, '^  says  an  old  chronicler, 
"  the  king  and  queen  were  received  with  all  joy  that  might 
be  devised.  The  streets  were  hung  with  rich  cloths  of  silk, 
afras,  and  tapestry ;  the  aldermen  and  burgesses  of  the  city 
threw  out  of  their  windows  handsfull  of  gold  and  silver,  to 
signify  the  great  gladness  which  they  had  conceived  of  his 
safe  return ;  the  conduits  ran  plentifully  with  white  wine  and 
red,  that  each  creature  might  drink  his  fill."  Add  to  this 
description  the  fact  that  19,660  capons  and  fowls,  and  over  a 
thousand  animals,  were  ordered  to  be  served  up  at  the  corona- 
tion feast,  and  some  idea  may  be  formed  of  a  royal  reception 
in  England  six  hundred  years  ago. 

The  maintenance  of  such  an  extravagant  court  required  a 
vast  amount  of  money.  Large  sums  were  also  demanded  by 
the  king  for  his  military  expeditions.  Edward  I.  was  no 
more  scrupulous  than  other  English  monarchs  had  been,  about 
raising  pecuniary  supplies.  With  regard  to  the  Jews,  his 
crusading  zeal  made  him  even  less  so.  They  were  robbed, 
tortured,  and  put  to  death,  on  every  pretext.  Finally  they 
were  banished  the  kingdom.  In  the  year  1290,  over  sixteen 
thousand  of  this  persecuted  race  left  England,  to  seek  in  still 
more  cruelly-persecuting  countries,  a  miserable  existence. 

Among  other  means  which  the  king  took  of  filling  his 
coifers,  was  the  appointment  of  a  committee  to  examine  the 
title-deeds  by  which  every  great  baron  held  his  land.  In  the 
confusion  of  the  times,  mnny  of  these  title-deeds  had  been 
lost;  in  which  case  Edward  would  seize  the  estate  for  the 
crown,  onfy  restoring  it  on  the  payment  of  a  large  sum  of 
money.  He  did  not,  however,  proceed  far  in  this  undertaking, 
for  the  barons,  having  guarded   so  zealously  their  liberties, 


EDWARD    I.  107 

during  the  last  two  reigns,  were  not  likely  to  let  them  go  in 
this.  When  the  commissioners  applied  to  the  Earl  of  War- 
renne,  he  answered,  drawing  his  sword  from  its  scabbard : 
'^By  this  instrument  do  I  hold  my  lands,  and  by  the  same  I 
intend  to  defend  them !  Our  ancestors,  coming  into  this 
realm  with  William  the  Norman,  acquired  their  possessions 
by  their  good  swords.  William  did  not  make  a  conquest 
alone,  or  for  himself  solely;  our  ancestors  were  helpers  and 
participants  with  him  I" 

Notwithstanding  these  somewhat  arbitrary  proceedings, 
Edward  did  much  to  reform  the  abuses  abounding  in  the 
courts  of  justice.  ''In  his  time,"  says  Sir  Matthew  Hale, 
"  the  law  obtained  a  very  great  perfection."  Corrupt  judges 
were  heavily  fined  and  imprisoned.  Sir  Ralph  de  Hengham, 
the  chief  justiciary,  being  convicted  of  bribery,  was  sentenced 
to  pay  a  large  fine,  and  the  money  was  expended  in  the 
erection  of  a  Clock  Tower  in  the  Old  Palace  of  Westminster. 
"  Its  intent  was,"  says  an  old  chronicler,  "  by  the  clock 
striking  continually,  to  remind  the  judges  in  the  neighboring 
courts  to  administer  true  justice,  they  calling  thereby  to  mind 
the  occasion  and  means  of  its  building." 

Edward  I.  inherited  to  the  full  the  ambition,  and  love  of 
conquest  which  distinguished  the  sovereigns  of  Norman  and 
Plantagenet  race.  With  him,  however,  this  disposition  took 
another  direction  than  that  of  foreign  dominion,  which  had 
been  its  prevailing  manifestation  with  all  this  monarch's 
ancestors.  The  aim  of  Edward's  life  was  to  unite  the  whole 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  under  one  rule.  The  latter 
country  had  been  partially  conquered  in  the  reign  of  his 
great-grandfather,  Henry  II.,  but  North  Wales  was  still 
unsubdued,  and  Scotland  was  an  independent  kingdom. 

It  was  against  the  Welsh  that  his  arms  were  first 
turned.  This  brave  people  made  a  noble  stand  for 
fi-eedom.  A  hundred  years  before,  a  Cambrian  chief  had 
made  the  following  reply,  when  questioned  by  Henry  II.  as  to 
the  conquest  of  his  country :  "  King,  your  power  may,  to  a 
certain  extent,  weaken  and  injilre  this  nation,  but  utterly  to 


108  HISTOKY    OF    ENGLAND. 

destroy  it  requires  the  aoger  of  God.     In  the  duy  of  judgment 

no  other  race,  no  other  tongue  than  that  of  the  Kymrys,*  will 

answer  for  that  corner  of  the  earth  to  the  sovereign  judge." 

Amid  the  defiles  of  the  mountains  of  Wales  many  an  English 

army  found  a  grave.     But  the  ruthless  Edward  was  not  to  be 

foiled.      From   the   foot   of  the    Pyrenees   he   brought   the 

Basques,  soldiers  wont  to  penetrate  even  steeper  and  wilder 

fastnesses  than  those  of  Snowdon.     They  drove  the  Welsh 

from  their  strongholds,  and  the  last  bulwark  of  their  freedom 

was  invaded.      Their  king,  Llewellyn,  was  slain  in 

battle,   and   his   head    placed  upon    London   Tower, 

encircled  with  a  willow  crown.     Under  Llewellyn's  brother, 

David,  the  struggle  continued,  until  that  last  royal  champion 

of  Welsh  freedom  was  betrayed  and  carried  in  chains 

to  Rhudhan  Castle,  where  he  was  put  to  death  by 

order  of  King  Edward. 

Tradition  says  that  the  ancient  British  bards  fell  victims  to 
this  king's  unsparing  cruelty.  Tlie  poet  Gray,  in  his  beauti- 
ful ode,  "The  Bard,"  makes  one  wlio  survived  the  massacre 
of  his  race  foretell  the  future  misfortunes  of  the  Plantagenet 
kings : 

"Weave  the  warp,  and  weave  the  woof, 
The  winding-sheet  of  Edward's  race." 

Dark  indeed  was  the  shadow  cast  upon  the  future  of  that 
monarch's  eldest  born,  the  first  Prince  of  Wales,  then  an 
infant  in  Caernarvon  Castle. 

Once  again  during  this  reign,  under  a  brave  leader, 
Madoc,  the  Welsh  made  an  attempt  to  recover  their 
freedom.  Again  the  English  soldiers  scaled  the  heights  of 
Snowdon,  and  desolated  the  Welsh  valleys  with  fire  and  sword. 
The  brave  descendants  of  the  Britons,  who  for  centuries  had 
resisted  Saxon,  Danish,  and  Norman  domination,  were  forced 
to  yield  their  independence  to  the  persevering  valor  of  Ed- 
ward I.     Though  conquered,  they  have  not  been  destroyed^ 

*  A  name  of  the  ancient  Welsh. 


EDWARD   I.  109 

nor  have  they  changed  their  language  for  that  of  the  con- 
querors. The  "tongue  of  the  Kymrys"  still  forms  the  speech 
of  the  greater  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  principality 
of  Wales. 

In  the  year  1291,  King  Edward  was  invited  to 
settle  a  disputed  succession  to  the  crown  of  Scotland. 
The  principal  competitors  were  Jo'hn  Baliol  and  Robert  Bruce. 
Edward,  who  aimed  to  bring  Scotland  under  his  own  sway, 
decided  in  favor  of  Baliol,  whose  weak  character  fitted  him 
to  be  a  useful  tool  in  the  hands  of  the  ambitious  English 
monarch.  The  latter  soon  began  to  make  such  demands  as 
awakened  the  country  to  rebellion. 

Then  rose  the  chief.  Sir  "William  Wallace,  a  name 

to       celebrated,  in  Scottish  ballad  and  romance.     For  many 

years  he  resisted  the  arms  of  the   English,  but  at 

length  he  was  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies.     In 

London,  on  St.  Bartholomew's  day,  this  brave  champion  of 

Scotland's  freedom  perished  on  the  gallows. 

To  Wallace  succeeded  "the  Bruce,"  a  name  still  more 
renowned  in  the  annals  of  Scotland.  Crowned  king  at  Scone, 
by  the  hand  of  the  Countess  of  Buchan,  he  raised  a  spirit 
which  defied  the  power  of  the  English  king.  At  first  Bruce 
was  defeated,  and  obliged  to  flee  before  the  army  of  England. 
For  months  he  wandered  an  outlawed  fugitive  among  the 
Scottish  Isles.  Returning  to  the  mainland,  and  aided  by  a 
few  bold  followers,  he  repeatedly  defeated  the  English. 

When  Edward  heard  of  the  coronation  of  the  Bruce,  he  set 
out  for  Scotland,  vowing  to  accomplish  its  final  conquest. 
The  day  previous  to  his  departure  was  fixed  upon  for  bestow- 
ing the  honor  of  knighthood  on  the  Prince  of  Wales.  At  the 
feast  which  followed  this  ceremony,  two  swans,  covered  with 
nets  of  gold,  were  placed  upon  the  table  by  minstrels.  The 
king,  rising,  swore  a  solemn  vow,  "  to  God  and  to  the  swans," 
that  he  would  punish  the  rebellion  of  the  Scots.  Then  turn- 
ing to  his  son  and  the  assembled  guests,  he  enjoined  upon 
them,  should  he  die  in  this  expedition  before  accomplishing 
10 


110  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

the  object  of  it,  to  keep  his  body  un buried,  until  his  successor 
should  have  fulfilled  this  vow. 

After  this  foolish  and  half-heathen  ceremony,  the  army 
began  its  march.  The  king,  being  in  feeble  health, 
was  borne  on  a  litter,  and  followed  the  troops  by  slow 
stages.  He  never  reached  Scotland,  dying  at  a  little  village 
near  its  borders.  On  his  death-bed,  Edward  implored  his  son 
to  prosecute  the  conquest  of  Scotland,  to  give  up  foreign  and 
evil  companions,  and  under  pain  of  his  father's  curse,  never  to 
restore  to  his  confidence  Piers  Gaveston,  who  had  been  one  of 
this  prince's  most  unworthy  favorites. 

Questions. — Describe  the  new  monarch's  homeward  journey. — 
Relate  the  circumstances  which  led  him  to  visit  Flanders. — Describe 
his  reception  in  the  city  of  London. — What  measures  did  he  adopt 
ft)r  raising  money  ? — Relate  the  anecdote  of  the  Earl  of  Warrenne. 

Whffct  ambitious  project  did  Edward  entertain  ? — Repeat  the  speech 
of  a  Cambrian  (or  Welsh)  chief  to  Henry  II.  regarding  the  conquest 
of  Wales. — By  what  means  did  Edward  succeed  in  subduing  these 
mountaineers  ? — Relate  the  fate  of  their  last  kings. — What  is  told 
of  their  bards? — Repeat  quotation  from  Gray. — Describe  their  final 
effort  for  independence  and  its  result. 

By  what  circumstances  was  Edward  enabled  to  interfere  in  the 
affairs  of  Scotland? — To  what  did  his  conduct  give  rise? — Give  some 
account  of  Sir  William  Wallace. — Describe  the  career  of  Bruce. — 
Describe  the  ceremony  observed  by  Edward  prior  to  his  final  march 
for  Scotland. — Repeat  his  dying  commands  to  his  son. 


ENGLAND   IN   THE   THIRTEENTH   CENTURY.  Ill 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

CONDITION  OF  ENGLAND  IN  THE  THIRTEENTH  CENTURY. 

RELIGION — INDUSTRY — MANNERS   AND    CUSTOMS — LEARNING  AND  LEARNED 

MEN. 

The  history  of  the  church  in  England,  during  this  century, 
is  but  the  history  of  exactions  and  tyranny  on  the  part  of 
papal  power,  which  was  then  at  its  height. 

One  historian  says,  that  the  reason  so  few  articles  appear  in 
Magna  Charta,  providing  for  church  and  clergy,  though  one 
of  the  framers  of  that  instrument  was  an  archbishop,  is,  that 
the  power  and  wealth  of  the  kingdom  being  so  largely  in  their 
possession,  there  was  nothing  left  for  them  to  ask.  We  may 
well  believe  this,  when  we  learn  that  almost  one-half  of  the 
landed  estates  in  England  belonged  to  the  church,  and  that 
the  taxes  which  the  Pope  received  yearly  from  this  country, 
exceeded  those  paid  to  the  crown. 

The  churches  were  given  to  Italian  priests.  In  many  in- 
stances, the  Pope  would  appoint  to  English  livings,  an  infant 
nephew,  or  a  foreigner,  who,  residing  in  Italy,  drew  large 
revenues  from  his  distant  flock,  without  performing  a  single 
pastoral  duty. 

During  this  period  there  arose  the  new  religious  orders, 
of  mendicant  or  begging  friars.  There  were  the  Dominicans, 
or  Black  Friars;  the  Franciscans,  or  Grey  Friars;  and  the 
Carmelites,  or  White  Friars.  These  were  named  respectively 
from  the  color  of  their  dress.  Shrouded  in  their  cloaks  and 
cowls,  with  a  rope  round  the  waist,  and  barefooted,  they 
travelled  about  the  country,  professing  great  poverty  and 
sanctity.  They  mixed  with  the  multitude,  preached  to  them, 
absolved  them,  and  performed  all  the  rites  of  the  church  with 
so  much  more  zeal  than  any  other  order  of  clergy,  that  they 
won  the  hearts  of  the  people,  who  flocked  to  them  in  every 


112  HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND. 

village.  By  the  middle  of  this  century  the  complaint  arose, 
"that  nobody  confessed  except  to  these  new-fashioned  monks- 
errant,  and  that  the  parish  churches  were  deserted." 

The  sermons  of  these  days  were  neither  interesting  nor 
profitable.  From  the  Holy  Scriptures,  which  Cardinal  Lang- 
ton  had  apportioned  into  chapters  and  verses,  the  preacher 
chose  his  text.  This  was  divided  and  subdivided,  for,  "  the 
greater  dexterity  the  speaker  discovered  in  splitting  his  text 
into  many  parts,"  the  greater  divine  and  the  better  preacher 
was  he  esteemed.  The  heads  of  his  discourse  were  equally 
multiplied,  until  the  sermon  became  a  mere  curious  and  tedious 
play  upon  words.  "  iMay  God,"  says  Friar  Bacon,  "banish 
this  conceited  and  artificial  way  of  preaching  out  of  Hia 
church ;  for  it  will  never  do  any  good,  nor  elevate  the  hearts 
of  the  hearers  to  anything  that  is  great  or  excellent." 

The  Bible-Doctors,  as  those  were  called  who  studied  and 
explained  the  Scriptures,  were  held  in  contempt,  being  con- 
sidered unlearned.  Few  said,  "  the  entrance  of  thy  word 
giveth  light."  No  wonder,  then,  that  it  was  an  age  of  bar- 
barism, cruelty,  and  corrupt  morals. 

Towards  the  close  of  this  century,  the  power  of  the  church 
received  a  check.  By  a  statute  of  Edward  I.'s  reign,  it  was 
provided,  that  every  "  clerk"  (clergyman)  charged  with  felony, 
should  first  be  indicted  in  the  king's  court,  and  if  found  guilty 
there,  he  was  not  to  be  discharged  in  the  church  courts,  by 
which  he  was  subsequently  tried,  without  due  punishment. 

In  the  year  1279,  a  law  was  passed  which  put  a  check  upon 
the  great  increase  of  the  wealth  of  the  clergy.  This  law  for- 
bade that  "  any  lands,  tenements,  or  rents,  should  be  given  to 
any  religious  body,  without  license  from  the  king  had  for  that 
purpose."  This  was  called  "  the  statute  of  mortmain,''  be- 
cause, as  the  clergy  paid  no  taxes  for  their  estates,  they  were 
said  to  pass  into  a  "dead  hand,"  when  they  were  given  to  the 
church. 

Commerce  in  this  century  was  checked  by  unwise  laws, 
which  grew  out  of  the  jealousy  felt  towards  foreign  merchants. 
At  one  time  such  were  forbidden  to  remain  in  the  country 


ENGLAND  IN  THE  THIRTEENTH  CENTURY.      113 

over  forty  days,  or  to  sell  their  goods  except  at  certain  fairs. 
They  had  to  pay  large  sums  for  the  privilege  of  trading,  and 
were  often  held  accountable  for  crimes  committed  in  the  land 
by  any  of  their  countrymen.  Notwithstanding  these  laws,  the 
trading  towns,  and  especially  London,  increased  in  prosperity. 
When  Henry  III.  was  advised  to  sell  his  plate  and  jewels  to 
raise  money,  he  asked  :  '*  Who  will  buy  them  V  "  The 
citizens  of  London,  of  course,"  was  the  reply.  "  By  my 
troth,"  cried  the  king,  ''if  the  treasures  of  Augustus  were 
put'  up  for  sale,  the  citizens  w^ould  be  the  purchasers." 

The  merchants  and  tradesmen  formed  themselves  into  asso- 
ciations for  the  protection  and  regulation  of  trade.  These 
were  called  Guilds,  and  soon  became  wealthy  and  powerful 
bodies. 

A  great  part  of  the  trade  was  carried  on  at  fairs.  These 
were  often  continued  for  a  fortnight  or  longer  at  a  time,  and 
were  frequented  by  crowds  of  people.  The  ground  where  the 
fair  was  held  resembled  a  tented  city  of  great  extent.  Goods 
of  all  kinds  were  exposed  for  sale,  and  kings  and  nobles  sent 
thither  to  purchase  jewels,  plate,  furniture,  and  horses. 

The  principal  articles  exported  from  England  were  wool, 
leather,  tin,  and  lead.  There  were  certain  merchants  whose 
privilege  it  was  to  buy  up  these  articles  and  carry  them  to 
specified  towns,  where  the  king's  customs  could  be  collected 
upon  them,  and  where  the  buyers  resorted  to  purchase. 
These  towns  were  called  staple-towns,  those  engaged  in  this 
business  were  named  merchants  of  the  staple,  and  in  time,  the 
articles  thus  sold  took  the  name  of  staples. 
r--. Besides  the  merchants  of  the  staple,  other  merchant  com- 
panies existed,  such  as  "The  Brotherhood  of  St.  Thomas 
a  Becket,''  and  "  The  Company  of  the  Lombards,"  which  last 
w^ere  chiefly  money-lenders. 

The  German  merchants  probably  originated  the  appellation 
of  sterling  to  the  currency  of  England.  The  Germans  were 
called  Esterlings,  from  the  situation  of  their  country,  and  as 
they  coined  most  of  the  money,  especially  the  silver  pennies, 
these  came  gradually  to  be  called  Esterling  or  sterling  pennies, 
10*  H 


114  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

and  good  coinage  in  general  became  denominated  sterling 
money. 

Church  building  and  architecture  occupied  a  large  measure 
of  the  industry  of  this  century.  The  most  beautiful  portions 
of  the  noblest  church  edifices  in  England — York  Minster, 
Westminster  Abbey,  the  cathedrals  of  Exeter,  Winchester, 
Lichfield,  and  Ely — are  either  in  whole  or  in  part  the  work 
of  this  era. 

A  brotherhood  of  architects,  chiefly  Italians,  Germans,  and 
Flemings,  travelled  from  country  to  country,  throughout 
Europe,  rearing  some  of  the  most  magnificent  churches, 
monasteries,  and  religious  houses,  which  the  world  has  ever 
beheld.  They  were  encouraged  by  papal  bulls,  and  called 
themselves  free  masons.  They  pitched  their  tents  or  camp 
of  huts  near  the  building  on  which  they  were  working.  They 
were  furnished,  by  the  piety  of  neighboring  noblemen,  with 
carriages  and  materials,  and  in  an  incredibly  short  space  of 
time  arose  those  imposing  structures,  which,  although  five 
hundred  years  have  passed  away,  remain  monuments  of  the 
wondrous  skill  and  religious  devotion  of  the  age  which  reared 
them. 

The  churches,  towards  the  close  of  this  period,  received  a 
new  and  very  useful  addition,  by  the  introduction  of  clocks. 
They  were  imported  from  the  East,  or  were  made  in  England 
by  foreign  artists.  We  hear  of  one,  which  cost  four  hundred 
pounds,  being  set  up  in  the  cat]^edral  church  of  Canterbury, 
in  1292. 

The  gloomy  keeps  of  the  barons  received  additions,  which 
made  them  less  like  the  sullen  fortresses  of  a  previous  age. 
Henry  III.  ordered  an  apartment  to  be  built  for  his  daughter, 
which  should  have  a  raised  hearth  and  chimney,  and  be  fur- 
nished with  glazed  windows.  Painted  walls  now  came  into 
fashion,  and  the  embroidered  tapestry-hangings  were  dis- 
placed. On  the  walls  of  a  room  in  the  Tower  of  London,  was 
painted  the  history  of  Coeur-de-Lion's  crusade  to  the  Holy 
Land.  The  art  of  painting  on  glass  had  reached  to  great 
perfection,  so  that  nearly  every  church  could  boast  beautiful 


ENGLAND   IN    THE  THIRTEENTH   CENTURY.  115 

windows,  on  which  were  depicted,  in  exquisite  colors,  various 
sacred  histories. 

To  the  castles  and  monasteries  were  attached  extensive  and 
highly-cultivated  grounds.  There  was  the  herbary,  devoted 
to  the  raising  of  medicinal  herbs ;  the  vegetable  or  kitchen 
garden,  the  fruit-orchard,  and  frequently  vineyards.  The 
Normans,  coming  from  a  land  rich  in  cultivation^  naturally 
sought  to  improve  the  soil  of  their  new  country.  Among  the 
fruit-trees,  we  find  mention  of  apples,  pears,  cherries,  and 
plums.  No  doubt  the  crusaders  introduced  some  of  the  vege- 
table productions  of  the  East,  such  as  the  damson  plum,  and 
the  damask  rose,  which  take  their  name  from  the  beautiful 
vale  of  Damascus,  of  which  they  are  natives 

The  Anglo-Normans  lost  in  this  century  their  moderation 
in  the  pleasures  of  the  table.  During  regular  meals,  there 
were  delicate  dishes  served  at  intervals,  called  "  intermeats." 
Whilst  partaking  of  these  the  guests  were  entertained  by 
species  of  theatrical  exhibitions.  The  improvised  lay  of  the 
troubadour  was  in  great  request  at  the  courts  of  king  and 
nobles.  These  wandering  poets  and  musicians,  called  trouba- 
dours in  France,  minnesingers  in  Germany,  and  minstrels  in 
England,  exerted  a  powerful  influence  on  the  literature  and 
manners  of  the  age. 

The  diet  of  the  poorer  classes  was  homely  and  plain.  To 
the  husbandman  during  harvest  were  given  two  herrings, 
milk  from  the  dairy,  and  a  Igaf  of  bread  a  day.  When  the 
crops  were  harvested,  each  laborer  had  a  supply  of  the  pro- 
duce, which  was  to  last  him  until  the  next  season.  Often  the 
wasteful  indulgence  directly  after  harvest  would  cause  famine 
or  much  suffering  during  the  rest  of  the  year. 

The  extravagance  in  food  among  the  rich  was  extended  to 
the  kindred  luxury  of  dress.  Gold  and  silk  stuffs,  velvet  and 
furs,  with  abundance  of  costly  ornaments,  were  the  materials. 
But  little  taste  was  exhibited  in  the  arrangement.  The  hair 
of  the  women  was  gathered  under  a  network  of  gold,  silver, 
or  silk  texture.  Over  it  was  worn  a  veil,  and  sometimes  a 
round  hat  or  cap.     A  neck-cloth  wound  two  or  three  time* 


116  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

round  the  ueck,  and  fastened  with  pins  on  each  side  of  the 
face  above  the  ears,  completed  a  head-dress,  which  must  have 
made  the  women  of  the  thirteenth  century  look  very  much 
like  poor  creatures  suffering  from  mumps  or  toothache. 
•  Ermine  was  first  used  in  Henry  Ill.'s  reign,  for  the  lining- 
of  royal  robes.  The  dresses  of  the  clergy  were  very  splendid. 
In  this  century  the  red  hat  was  first  worn  by  cardinals. 

Notwithstanding  the  distractions  of  war,  there  were  those 
who  paid  no  little  attention  to  learning.  Many  of  the  colleges, 
which  are  the  pride  of  the  two  great  universities  of  England, 
were  the  work  of  this  and  the  succeeding  century. 

Although  University  Hall  had  been  founded  or  endowed  at 
Oxford  by  the  great  Alfred,  four  hundred  years  before,  it  had 
long  fallen  into  decay,  and  the  students  of  the  universities 
were  forced  to  rent  private  houses  in  which  to  lodge  and 
pursue  their  studies.  But  now  a  most  beneficial  change  took 
place.  A  refined  and  liberal  patronage  of  learning  induced 
many  wealthy  persons  to  build  or  endow  edifices  for  the  sole 
use  of  the  masters  and  scholars  of  the  universities.  The 
erection  and  support  of  colleges  now  became  as  favorite  an 
object  with  the  rich,  as  the  founding  of  churches  and  religious 
houses  had  hitherto  been.  Baliol  College,  named  for  the 
father  of  the  Baliol  wh(5m  Edward  made  king  of  Scotland, 
and  Merton  College,  founded  by  Walter  Merton,  bishop  of 
Rochester,  were  erected  at  Oxford  during  the  reign  of 
Henry  III. 

Nor  were  these  halls  of  learning  wanting  in  good  and 
learned  men.  Many  a  worthy  name  graces  the  annals  of  this 
age,  but  none  more  deservedly  famous  than  that  of  Roger 
Bacon,  an  Oxford  friar.  Whilst  most  of  the  learned  men 
of  his  day  were  wrangling  about  words  without  knowledge ; 
discussing  "  how  many  angels  could  stand  on  the  point  of  a 
needle,"  and  other  questions  equally  absurd,  this  humble  friar 
was  seeking  to  lead  men  to  truth  by  experiment,  and  patient 
examination  of  the  works  of  God,  rather  than  by  vain  and 
foolish  theories.  Three  hundred  years  were  to  pass  before 
English  scholars  should  entirely  abandon  these  idle  specii^*^- 


ENGLAND    IN    THE   THIRTEENTH    CENTURY.  117 

tions,  in  pursuit  of  true  science.  Then  the  illustrious  name- 
sake of  the  humble  friar  of  the  middle  ages,  Francis  Bacon, 
Lord  Verulam  and  Viscount  St.  Albans,  became  the  father 
of  experimental  philosophy. 

Thirty  thousand  pounds  were  expended  by  Friar  Bacon  in 
scientific  investigation  and  experiment.  He  discovered  the 
art  of  making  gunpowder,  but  never  published  it  to  the  world, 
probably  from  a  humane  motive.  After  describing,  in  his 
writings,  the  effects  produced  by  this  dangerous  compound, 
he  gives  the  list  of  ingredients.  In  doing  this,  he  transposes 
the  letters  of  the  Latin  words  which  signify  charcoal,  in  such 
a  way  as  to  render  the  description  obscure,  whilst  making  it 
perfectly  certain,  whenever  the  secret  should  be  discovered, 
that  it  had  already  been  in  the  good  friar's  possession.  He 
invented  reading-glasses  and  various  mathematical  instru- 
ments. 

Owing  to  the  ignorance  and  envy  of  the  monks,  Bacon  was 
accused  of  being  a  sorcerer,  and  thrown  into  prison,  where  he 
languished  for  many  years.  He  died  in  1292.  Michael 
Scott  and  John  Duns  Scotus  were  two  famous  mathematical 
and  metaphysical  scholars  of  that  day.  The  former  spent 
much  time  in  the  study  of  astrology  and  alchemy,  so  that  the 
common  people  looked  upon  him  as  a  magician.  On  men  of 
genius  and  learning  in  that  age  it  was  the  custom  to  bestow 
pompous  titles,  such  as  "  the  angelic  doctor,"  "  the  subtile," 
"  the  singular  and  invincible,"  &c. 

To  Matthew  Paris,  a  Benedictine  monk  of  St.  Alban's,  we 
owe  a  very  interesting  history,  which  is  chiefly  remarkable  for 
the  boldness  with  which  the  tyranny  of  the  Romish  church  is 
condemned. 

The  condition  of  England  was  not  more  secure  during  this 
period,  than  it  had  been  in  previous  ages.  King  Henry  IIL 
complained  that  in  travelling  through  Hampshire,  the  bold 
robbers  plundered  his  baggage,  carried  off  his  wine,  and  set 
his  power  at  defiance.  In  Edward  I.'s  reign  a  law  was  passed 
ordering  the  gates  of  all  walled  towns  to  be  shut  from  sunset 
to  sunrise ;  a  watch  to  be  set,  and  every  stranger  to  be  seized, 


118  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

unless  the  guest  of  a  citizeu.  The  highways  between  market 
towns  were  to  be  cleared  for  two  hundred. feet  on  either  side, 
and  no  tree  or  bush  left  near  the  road,  behind  which  a  robber 
could  lurk.  Every  one  was  ordered  to  provide  himself  with 
armor;  the  poor  were  to  have  bows  and  arrows  at  least. 
When  a  band  of  robbers  was  discovered,  the  nearest  towns 
were  to  raise  "  the  hue  and  cry."  The  word  hue  meant  in 
those  days,  pursuit,  and  was  taken  from  an  old  French  verb, 
"  huer,"  signifying,  to  pursue  with  shouting. 

Questions. — What  reason  is  given  for  the  slight  allusion  to  the 
church  in  Magna  Charta? — Describe  the  condition  of  the  English 
churches  in  this  century. — Name  and  describe  the  character  of  the 
mendicant  monks. — Describe  the  style  of  preaching  in  this  age. — 
Mention  the  checks  -which  ecclesiastical  power  received  towards  the 
close  of  the  century. 

What  laws  injurious  to  commerce  were  passed  ? — Describe  the 
fairs  of  those  days. — Relate  the  origin  of  the  term  "staples." — 
Likewise  the  origin  of  "  sterling,"  as  applied  to  currency. — Name  a 
few  specimens  of  the  architecture  of  this  age. — AVho  were  the  free 
masons? — Describe  their  plan  of  operations. — What  improvements 
are  mentioned  in  the  dwellings  of  this  century? 

What  is  told  of  gardens  and  their  products? — What  entertain- 
ments were  enjoyed  by  the  nobles  at  their  meals? — Describe  the 
fare  and  habits  of  the  poorer  classes. — Relate  what  is  told  of  dress. — 
Describe  the  condition  of  the  universities  prior  to  this  time. — Men- 
tion the  colleges  founded  in  this  century. — Relate  the  account  given 
of  Friar  Bacon. — Describe  the  condition  of  the  country. — By  what 
laws  was  its  better  security  provided  for  ? 


EDWARD  II.  110 


PART  VI. 
ENGLAND  DURING  THE  FOURTEENTH  CENTURY 

EDWARD  IL— EDWARD  III— RICHARD  II. 
A.  D.  1307—1399. 

•'With  Edward's  acts  adorn  the  shining  page, 
Stretch  his  long  triumphs  down  through  every  age, 
Draw  monarchs  chained,  and  Cressy's  glorious  field, 
The  lilies  blazing  on  the  royal  shield." 

Pope. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

EDWARD    II. 

GATESTON — BANNOCKBURN — CIVIL    STRIFE — DEPOSITION  OF  THE  KING. 

Edward  began  his  reign  by  disobeying  the  dying  com- 
mands of  his  father.     In  a  few  months  he  committed 

1307. 

the  late  king's  remains  to  a  tomb  in  Westminster 
Abbey :  he  made  but  a  feeble  pretence  of  carrying  on  the 
war  in  Scotland,  and  he  recalled  Gaveston  from  banishment, 
and  loaded  him  with  riches  and  honors. 

This  young  man  was  handsome,  brave,  and  accomplished; 
but  he  was  a  foreigner.  He  had  unbounded  influence  over 
the  king,  and  the  highest  honors  which  a  subject  could 
receive  were  bestowed  by  his  royal  master,  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  hereditary  nobility  of  the  realm.  Twice  compelled 
by  parliament  to  banish  him,  Edward  as  often  recalled  and 
restored  him  to  his  honors  and  estates. 

At  length  Gaveston  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies.  In 
the  hall  of  Warwick  Castle  he  was  condemned  by  a  council 


120  H18T0RV    OF    ENGLAND. 

of  those  English  nobles,  whom  in  the  day  of  his  power  he  had 
despised  and  ridiculed.  On  Blacklow  Hill,  a  gentle  knoll 
that  rises  from  the  river  Avon,  the  head  of  the  haughty 
favorite  bowed  beneath  the  executioner's  axe. 

Taking  advantage  of  the  weakness  of  the  English  king, 

Robert  Bruce,  his  brave  brothers  and  friends,  Edward  Bruce. 

jg^y     Randolph,   Douglas,  and   the   Steward   of  ScotUnid, 

to       were   fast  recovering    the   liberty  of  their  country. 

By  force  or  guile,  castle  after  castle  had  fallen  into 

their  hands. 

At  length  the  English  king  was  roused  to  exertion.  With 
one  of  the  largest  and  finest  armies  ever  raised  in  England, 
he  set  out  for  the  Scottish  border.  At  the  little  burn  (brook) 
of  Bannock,  about  two  miles  from  Stirling,  Bruce,  with  hardly 
forty  thousand  men,  prepared  to  encounter  this  mighty  array. 
The  night  before  the  battle  was  spent  by  the  Scottish  army 
in  devotion.  As  the  English  king  gazed  upon  this  inferior 
force,  kneeling  on  the  greensward,  in  the  attitude  of  prayer, 
he  exclaimed :  "  See  I  they  kneel !  they  cry  for  mercy !" 
"  They  kneel,  indeed,  my  liege,"  was  the  reply,  "  but  not  to 
you  ;  they  cry  for  mercy ;  but  it  is  to  heaven.  On  that  field 
they  will  conquer  or  die  !" 

And  on  the  field  of  Bannockburn,  they  did  conquer,  and 
bravely  too.  The  day  before  the  regular  action,  Bruce,  by  a 
brilliant  deed  of  valor,  done  in  the  sight  of  both  armies, 
cheered  the  spirits  of  his  men.  As  he  reviewed  his  troops, 
riding  on  a  palfrey,  with  battle-axe  in  hand,  and  the  crown 
of  Scotland  surmounting  his  steel  helmet,  an  English  knight, 
armed  cap-a-pie,  galloped  forward  on  his  heavy  charger,  and 
challenged  him  to  single  combat.  With  one  blow  of  his 
battle-axe,  Bruce  laid  the  proud  antagonist  at  his  feet.  In 
the  general  battle,  which  occurred  on  the  24th  of  June,  the 
conflict  was  long  and  bloody.  When  the  Scottish  shout  of 
victory  arose,  two  hundred  English  knights,  seven  hundred 
squires,  and  thirty  thousand  of  the  common  soldiers,  lay  dead 
upon  the  field.  After  the  battle  of  Bannockburn,  Stirling 
Castle,  the  great  stronghold  of  finglish  power,  surrendered. 


EDWARD   IT.  121 

Border  warfare  was  carried  on  between  the  two  countries, 
with  scarcely  an  interval  of  peace,  until  1328,  when  a  truce 
of  thirteen  years  was  concluded. 

The  king's  misgoverninent  and  passion  for  favorites  roused 
a  rebellion,  headed  by  the  Duke  of  Lancaster.  At  Borough- 
bridge,  the  two  parties  had  an  encounter,  in  which  Lancaster 
was  defeated,  and  compelled  to  surrender.  He  was  put  to 
death  by  order  of  the  king,  who  regarded  him  with  especial 
enmity,  for  the  part  he  had  taken  in  the  death  of  Graveston. 
Among  the  prisoners  at  Boroughbridge  was  one  Roger  Mor- 
timer. He  was  thrown  into  the  Tower  of  London,  and  there 
lay  under  sentence  of  death.  Making  his  guards 
drink  to  intoxication,  he  escaped  their  vigilance. 
Climbing  the  chimney,  he  let  himself  down  by  a  ladder  of 
ropes,  and  crossing  the  Thames  in  a  wherry,  mounted  a  fleet 
horse,  prepared  by  friends  who  awaited  him,  and  escaped  to 
the  coast,  whence  he  crossed  over  to  France. 

Edward's  queen,  Isabella,  the  sister  of  the  French  king, 
was  one  of  the  most  beautiful  women  in  Europe,  but  she  was 
unprincipled,  and  her  husband's  neglect  had  so  excited  her 
evil  passions,  that  she  was  fully  prepared  to  take  part  with  his 
enemies.  In  the  year  1325  she  went  to  France,  under  pre- 
tence of  settling  some  dispute  which  had  arisen  between  her 
husband  and  her  brother,  the  king  of  that  country.  There 
she  was  joined  by  Roger  Mortimer.  A  host  of  enemies  was 
raised  against  the  English  monarch,  and  Isabella,  placing 
herself  at  their  head,  entered  England,  where  she  was  hailed 
as  a  deliverer. 

Never  was  English  king  so  entirely  deserted  by  all 
classes  of  his  subjects.  He  became  a  fugitive  among 
the  mountains  of  Wales ;  but  even  there,  in  the  land  of  his 
birth,  none  gathered  to  the  standard  of  Edward  of  Caernar- 
von. Surrendering  himself  into  the  hands  of  a  brother  of 
the  murdered  Duke  of  Lancaster,  he  became  a  prisoner  in 
Kenilworth  Castle. 

In  January,  1327,  parliament  met  at  Westminster.     The 
queen  and  her  son,  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales,  were  present. 
11 


122  lUSTOHi:    OF    ENGLAXU. 

A  declaration  was  read,  dethroning  Edward  II.  Not  one 
voice  arose  in  his  defence.  Amid  the  joyous  acclamations  of 
the  people,  barons  and  prelates  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
his  son.  In  the  great  hall  of  Kenilworth  Castle,  the  dis- 
crowned, dishonored  king,  wrapped  in  a  coarse  black  robe, 
received  the  deputation  sent  to  tell  him  that  he  no  longer 
swayed  a  sceptre. 

When  the  Speaker  of  parliament  had  read  the  sentence,  the 
steward  of  the  royal  household  broke  the  white  wand  of  office, 
a  ceremony  usually  performed  at  a  king's  death,  to  signify  that 
his  royal  dignity  exists  no  more 

It  was  in  the  reign  of  Edward  II.  that  the  Order  of  Knights 
Templars  was  suppressed.  This  order  had  been  established 
in  the  twelfth  century  by  nine  poor  crusaders  for  the  protec- 
tion of  Christian  pilgrims  to  Jerusalem.  From  a  state  of 
humility  and  poverty  they  had  become,  during  the  lapse  of 
two  centuries,  one  of  the  wealthiest  and  proudest  orders  of  the 
Roman  church.  The  first  monarch  who  ventured  to  attack 
them  was  King  Philip  of  France.  Coveting  their  vast 
possessions,  he  first  accused  them  of  enormous  crimes,  and 
then  proceeded  to  arrest  and  imprison  them.  The  most 
atrocious  cruelties  were  perpetrated  against  these  unfortunate 
men.  They  appealed  in  vain  to  the  Pope  for  protection,  and 
finally  perished  at  the  stake. 

In  England  the  suppression  of  the  order  was  unattended  by 
this  barbarous  cruelty,  but  the  members  were  deprived  of  their 
possessions,  shut  up  in  monasteries,  and  there  passed  the 
remainder  of  their  lives,  on  a  scanty  pittance  allowed  by  the 
king,  from  the  revenues  of  which  he  had  deprived  them. 
The  fate  of  the  English  monarch  must  have  seemed  to  the 
Templars  a  fitting  punishment  for  this  deed  of  violence. 

The  unfortunate  Edward  after  his  dethronement  remained 
for  a  time  at  Kenilworth,  where  the  Earl  of  Lancaster  dealt 
kindly  by  his  prisoner.  This  alarmed  the  queen,  who,  with 
Lord  Mortimer,  now  ruled  the  kingdom,  and  she  caused  her 
husband  to  be  committed  to  a  harsher  jailorship  in  Berkeley 
Castle. 


EDWARD  III.  123 

One  atltumn  night,  fearful  shrieks  resounded  through  the 
walls  of  the  building.  The  next  day,  Edward  of 
Caernarvon  was  found  dead.  His  cruel  murderers 
reported  that  he  had  been  carried  off  during  the  preceding 
night,  by  a  violent  disorder.  The  people  were  not  deceived, 
and  the  towers  of  this  castle  on  the  Severn  have  ever  since 
been  invested  with  a  melancholy  interest. 


Questions  — By  what  acts  of  filial  disobedience  did  this  king  begin 
his  reign? — Relate  the  career  of  Gaveston. — Name  the  principal 
champions  of  Scottish  freedom. — What  success  had  they  obtained? — 
Relate  the  account  given  of  the  battle  of  Bannockburn. 

Mention  the  result  of  the  rebellion  under  Lancaster. —  Relate  the 
peril  and  escape  of  Mortimer. — Describe  the  character  and  conduct 
of  Edward's  queen. — How  was  she  received  and  regarded  in  Eng- 
land?— What  misforiunes  befell  the  king? — Describe  the  scene  of  his 
deposition. — Relate  the  manner  in  which  the  sentence  was  made 
known  to  him. — Describe  the  treatment  he  received  subsequently. — 
Where  and  under  what  circumstances  did  he  die? 


CHAPTER  XXL 

EDWARD  III. 


OVERTHROW    OP    MORTIMER — CLAIM     TO    THE     FRENCH    CROWN — WARS     IN 
FRANCE. 

Eight  months  before  his  father's  death,  the  young  Edward, 
a  lad  of  fourteen  years,  was  crowned  kint?.  A  council 
of  twelve  of  the  greatest  lords  of  the  realm  was  ap- 
pointed by  parliament  "  to  have  the  rule  and  government;" 
but  the  real  power  and  rule  lay  in  the  hands  of  Queen  Isa- 
bella and  Lord  Mortimer. 

When  Isabella  was  on  the  continent,  raising  a  party  to 
oppose  her  husband,  she  had  been  kindly  received  by  the 
Count  of  Hainault,  who  affianced  his  daughter  Philippa  to 
her  son,  then  Prince  of  Wales.     This  betrothal  was,  perhaps. 


124  HISTORY    OB-    ENGLAND. 

the  only  good  thing  which  came  of  the  intrigues  of  the  wicked 
Isabella.  The  marriage  took  place  with  great  pomp 
in  January,  a  year  after  the  young  Edward  had 
become  king. 

Two  years  later,  Edward  III.,  having  reached  the  age  of 
eighteen,  determined  to  put  an  end  to  the  power  of  Lord 
Mortimer,  and  to  take  the  government  into  his  own  hands. 
The  parliament  was  assembled  at  Nottingham.  The  queen 
mother,  her  son,  and  Mortimer  were  there,  lodging  in  the 
strong  castle.  From  the  fears  which  an  evil  conscience 
brings,  Isabella  had  surrounded  the  building  with  a  guard, 
and  every  night  she  caused  the  keys  of  the  ponderous  castle 
gates  to  be  laid  by  her  bedside.  The  governor,  however, 
being  bribed,  conducted  Edward's  party  by  a  secret  under- 
ground passage  into  the  very  halls  of  thi  castle,  where  they 
were  joined  by  the  young  king  and  his  retinue. 

Bursting  into  the  room  in  which,  at  that  midnight  hour, 
Isabella's  evil  counsellors  were  busy  in  "anxiolis  consultation,'* 
they  seized  the  guilty  lords,  and,  notwithstanding  the  queen 
mother's  tearful  entreaties  to  "  spare  her  gentle  Mortimer," 
he  was  hurried  from  her  presence,  and  shortly  after  put  to 
death.  Isabella,  shut  up  in  the  Manor  House  of  Rising, 
passed  there  the  remaining  twenty-seven  years  of  her  life. 
Edward  was  now  the  real  master  of  his  kingdom. 

In  Scotland,  the  great  Bruce  was  dead.  His  brave  friend, 
Lord  James  Douglas,  whilst  bearing  his  master's  heart,  in 
compliance  with  a  dying  request,  to  the  Holy  Land,  was  slain 
by  the  Moors  in  Spain.  Randolph  too  was  dead,  and  the 
young  David,  the  only  son  of  King  Robert,  was  left  almost 
without  a  champion  to  secure  the  crown  on  his  young  head. 

Edward    IIL,   taking   advantage    of  these    circumstances, 

secretly  stirred  up  a  pretender  to  the  Scottish  throne,  in  the 

person  of  Edward  Baliol,  a  son  of  the  weak  John   Baliol, 

whom  his  orrandfather  had  made  kinj?.     As  Ions:  as 

1332  ~  c 

English  arms  supported  his  cause  Baliol  reigned,  but 
no  sooner  were  they  recalled,  than  the  indignant  Scots  drove 
him  from  his  throne.     At  length,  King  Edward,  having  a 


EDWARD   III.  125 

more  tempting  prize  in  view,  withdrew  his  attention  from 
Scotland. 

This  prize  was  nothing  less  than  the  Trench  crown,  to 
which  Edward  laid  claim  as  the  son  of  a  French  princess. 
By  a  law,  called  the  Salique  law,  no  woman  can  reign  in 
France.  Edward  contended  that,  although  his  mother  could 
not  become  queen,  he  might  inherit  the  crown  through  her; 
and  as  Isabella's  three  brothers  had  died,  leaving  no  sons,  he 
claimed  to  be  the  rightful  heir.  The  French  argued  differ- 
ently— that  the  throne  could  descend  only  through  a  male 
line  of  succession.  They,  therefore,  had  crowned  Philip  of 
Valois,  the  son  of  Isabella's  uncle. 

The  idea  of  a  French  war,  especially  for  such  an 

X338* 

object,  was  highly  popular,  and  Edward  found  little 
difficulty  in  raising  a  large  army.  Parliament  granted  money, 
culled  subsidies,  when  given  for  such  purposes.  The  tin  of 
Cornwall  and  Devonshire,  and  the  wool  throughout  England, 
was  seized,  and  even  the  crown  jewels  were  pawned  to  raise 
the  large  amount  required  to  equip  the  fleet  and  army,  and  to 
pay  the  king's  allies  on  the  continent. 

Little  of  importance  was  done  in  the  French  war  until  1346, 
a  year  made  memorable  by  the  famous  battle  of  Ore^y  In  Au- 
gust of  that  year  the  English  king  was  advancing  through  the 
northern  provinces  of  France  with  an  army  of  thirty  thousand 
men,  seeking  to  join  his  allies  in  Flanders.  The  French,  with 
a  vastly  superior  force,  opposed  his  march.  With  desperate 
valor,  having  fought  his  way  across  the  river  Somme,  in  face 
of  the  enemy,  Edward  encamped  on  a  gentle  eminence  near 
the  village  of  Cre9y,  and  there  awaited  the  arrival  of  Philip, 
with  the  main  army  of  the  French. 

"I  have  good  reason  to  wait  for  him  on  this  spot,"  said 
King  Edward.  "I  am  now  upon  the  lawful  inheritance  of  my 
lady  mother — upon  the  lands  of  Ponthieu,  which  were  given 
to  her  as  her  marriage  portion,  and  I  am  resolved  to  defend 
them  against  my  adversary,  Philip  de  Yalois."  His  army 
was  but  a  handful  compared  with  the  French  host : 

1346.  ^  .  ' 

but  the  men  were  refreshed  with  food  and  rest  and 
11* 


126  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

cheering  words,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  26th  of  August 
were  ready  to  meet  their  enemies.  Of  the  latter  the  chronicler 
Froissart  says :  "  Ho  man,  unless  he  had  been  present,  can 
imagine  the  bad  management  and  disorder  of  the  French, 
whose  troops  were  innumerable."  As  they  were  advancing 
in  this  tumultuous  confusion,  King  Philip,  at  sight  of  the 
English,  cried  out :  "  Order  the  Genoese  forward,  and  begin 
the  battle,  in  the  name  of  God  and  St  Denis !" 

The  Genoese  were  famous  cross-bow-men,  and  were  much 
relied  upon  for  skill  and  bravery  But  on  this  occasion  they 
were  fatigued  by  a  long  march ;  their  bows  were  injured  by 
a  shower  of  rain,  and  they  were  more  than  matched  by  the 
well-skilled  archery  of  the  English  yeomen.  From  a  neigh- 
boring hill  King  Edward  watched  the  progress  of  the  battle. 
Foremost  and  bravest  in  the  action  was  his  son,  the  Prince 
of  Wales,  called  "  The  Black  Prince,"  from  the  color  of  his 
armor.  Although  but  fifteen  years  of  age,  he  displayed  the 
valor  of  an  old  and  war-tried  veteran. 

Seeing  the  young  Prince  in  deadly  conflict  with  a  host  of 
enemies,  the  Earl  of  Warwick  sent  to  the  English  king  to 
request  aid  for  the  noble  boy.  "  Is  my  son  wounded,  or 
thrown  to  the  ground?"  demanded  the  king.  "No,  sire, 
please  God,  but  he  is  hard  beset,"  replied  the  messenger. 
"  Then  return  to  those  who  sent  yoUj-and  tell  them,  he  shall 
have  no  help  from  me.  Let  the  boy  win  his  spurs ;  for  I  am 
resolved,  if  it  please  God,  that  this  day  be  his.''  Such  was 
the  royal  father's  answer,  and  his  brave  son  won  the  day. 

The  French  fell  by  thousands.  At  night,  with  scarcely 
more  than  sixty  followers,  Philip  fled  from  the  field.  Riding 
to  the  castle  of  one  of  his  vassals,  he  demanded  admittance. 
The  chatelain,  or  governor,  asked  who  cried  at  such  an  hour. 
"  Open,  open,  chatelain;  it  is  the  fortune  of  France  !"  replied 
the  fugitive  monarch.  Only  stopping  for  some  slight  refresh- 
ment, the  king,  at  midnight,  continued  his  flight,  until  he 
found  a  place  of  safety  at  Amiens. 

The  English,  meanwhile,  were  rejoicing  over  one  of  the 
greatest  victories  ever  gained  on  a  battle-field.    King  Edward, 


EDWARD   III.  127 

embracing  his  son  in  presence  of  the  army,  said,  "  Sweet  son, 
Grod  give  you  good  perseverance.  Loyally  you  have  acquitted 
yourself  this  day,  and  worthy  are  you  of  a  crown  I"  Among 
those  who  fell  on  the  side  of  the  French,  was  the  old  and 
blind  king  of  Bohemia.  He  had  been  led  into  the  action 
between  two  knights.  His  crest  of  three  ostrich  feathers, 
with  the  motto,  "  Ich  dien^'  (I  serve),  was  adopted  by  the 
Black  Prince,  and  has  ever  since  been  the  crest  of  the  Princes 
of  Wales. 

After  the  battle  of  Cre§y,  Edward  laid  siege  to 
Calais,  one  of  the  strongest  of  the  French  towns. 
His  large  fleet  blockaded  the  harbor,  whilst,  on  the  land  side, 
he  surrounded  the  town  with  wooden  huts  filled  with  soldiers. 
The  inhabitants,  hoping  for  aid  from  King  Philip,  would  not 
surrender. 

Meanwhile  to  the  English  army  came  news  of  a  great 
victory  gained  over  the  Scots,  in  which  their  king,  David 
Bruce,  was  taken  prisoner.  Queen  Philippa,  it  is  said,  was 
present  on  this  occasion,  and  animated  the  troops  by  her  words 
of  courage  and  cheerfulness.  When  she  had  seen  her  royal 
captive  safely  lodged  in  the  Tower  of  London,  the  English 
queen  joined  her  husband  in  France.  The  siege  of  Calais 
went  on ;  and  as  no  provisions  could  enter  the  town,  the  con- 
dition of  the  citizens  was  dreadful.  The  governor  turned  out 
seventeen  hundred  people,  old  men,  women,  and 
children,  "  useless  mouths,^'  as  they  were  called  in 
the  cruel  language  of  war.  Edward  treated  these  wretched 
people  kindly,  gave  them  food,  and  a  small  supply  of  money, 
and  sent  them  into  the  country.  Another  body  of  five  hun- 
dred, whom  the  governor  turned  out,  Edward  could  not  pro- 
vide for,  and  they  perished  miserably  between  the  walls  of 
the  town  and  the  English  camp. 

At  length,  reduced  by  famine,  Calais  ofiered  to  surrender. 
The  English  king  demanded  that  six  of  the  chief  citizens 
should  present  themselves,  bareheaded  and  barefooted,  with 
ropes  round  their  necks,  and  deliver  up  to  him  the  keys  of 
the  town.     On  these  he  should  do  his  will;   and  on  these 


128  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

conditions  alone  would  he  spare  the  lives  of  the  people.  Alas ! 
for  the  cruelty  of  those  who  called  themselves  Christian 
knights — gentle  and  chivalrous.  ^\ 

In  the  market-place  of  Calais  this  message  was 
received  by  the  peqple  with  dismay  and  bitter  lament- 
ations. Of  those  who  had  so  nobly  borne  the  horrors  of  the 
eiege,  whom  should  they  sacrifice  ?  Such  was  the  painful 
dilemma  when,  according  to  the  quaint  narrative  of  the 
chronicler  Froissart,  '^  the  most  wealthy  citizen  of  the  town, 
by  name  Eustace  de  St.  Pierre,  rose  up  and  said :  '  Gentlemen 
both  high  and  low,  it  would  be  a  very  great  pity  to  suflfer  so 
many  people  to  die  through  famine,  if  any  means  could  be 
found  to  prevent  it;  and  it  would  be  highly  meritorious  in 
the  eyes  of  our  Saviour,  if  such  misery  could  be  averted.  I 
have  such  faith  and  trust  in  finding  grace  before  God,  if  I 
die  to  save  my  townsmen,  that  I  name  myself  as  first  of  the 
six  I' 

"  When  Eustace  had  done  speaking,  they  all  rose  up  and 
almost  worshipped  him :  many  cast  themselves  at  his  feet, 
with  tears  and  groans.  Another  citizen,  very  rich  and  re- 
spected, rose  up  and  said  he  would  be  the  second  to  his 
companion  Eustace.  His  name  was  John  Daire.  After  him, 
James  Wisant,  who  was  very  rich  in  merchandise  and  lands, 
ofi'ered  himself,  as  companion  to  his  two  cousins  :  as  did  Peter 
Wisant,  his  brother.  Two  others  then  named  themselves, 
which  completed  the  number  demanded  by  the  king  of 
England.  Then  there  arose  the  greatest  sorrow  and  lament- 
ation all  over  the  town,  and  in  such  manner  were  they 
attended  to  the  gate,  which  the  gov€rnor  ordered  to  be 
opened,  and  then  shut  upon  him  and  the  six  citizens,  whom 
he  led  to  the  barriers  of  the  English  camp." 

Soon  these  magnanimous  townsmen  of  Calais  were  in  the 
presence  of  the  English  king,  imploring  mercy.  Edward 
commanded  that  their  heads  should  be  struck  oiF.  The 
noblest  of  the  English  courtiers  begged  their  master  to  show 
more  pity :  he  would  not  listen,  and  only  repeated — "  Let  the 
headsman  be  summoned."     Then  Queen  Philippa  fell  on  her 


EDWARD   III.  129 

knees  before  him,  and  with  tears  pleaded  with  her  husband 
to  spare  the  Hves  of  these  devoted  men.  At  this  Edward's 
wrath-steeled  heart  was  touched.  "  Dame,"  he  exclaimed, 
''  I  wish  you  had  been  somewhere  else  j  but  I  cannot  refuse 
you.     I  put  them  at  your  disposal." 

Shortly  after  the  surrender  of  Calais,  a  truce  was  made 
with  France,  and  Edward  returned  to  England.  The  truce, 
which  was  to  last  less  than  a  year,  was  prolonged,  owing  to  a 
fearful  pestilence  which  spread  over  Europe  during  the  years 
1348  and  1349.  This  pestilence,  known  as  the  plague,  com- 
menced in  China,  and,  travelling  westward  over  the  deserts 
and  wilds  of  Asia,  swept  through  the  countries  of  the  Levant, 
desolated  Grreece  and  Egypt,  and  thence  pursued  its  fearful 
track  through  Germany  and  France,  appearing  in  London  in 
1348,  and  soon  penetrating  into  every  province  of  England. 
Nearly,  if  not  quite,  one-half  of  the  population  of  the  country 
was  carried  off,  and  when  this  great  pestilence  had  ceased, 
there  were  "  scarcely  hands  enough  left  to  till  the  soil,"  so 
frightful  had  its  ravages  been  among  the  poor. 

In  the  year  1355,  war  was  renewed  in  the  south  of  France. 
There,  in  the  ancient  duchy  of  Aquitaine,  the  Black  Prince 
had  established  his  court.  From  his  capital  of  Bordeaux,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Garonne,  in  July  of  1356,  Prince  Edward, 
with  a  small  army  of  twelve  or  fourteen  thousand  men, 
marched  northwards,  burping  and  destroying  on  his  route. 
This  wanton  destruction  so  angered  the  French,  that  no 
peasant  could  be  found  to  inform  the  Black  Prince  of  the 
whereabouts  of  the  French  army.  Consequently,  the  slender 
forces  of  Prince  Edward  encountered,  without  any  forewarning, 
the  mighty  hosts  of  his  enemies  at  the  little  village  of  Poictiers 
"  God  help  us  !"  exclaimed  Edward;  '•  we  must  now  consider 
how  we  can  best  fi2;ht  them." 

Like  his  father  at  Cre§y,  he  chose  his  position  with  admi- 
rable prudence.  The  Cardinal  Talleyrand,  a  legate  of  the 
Pope,  labored  to  make  peace  between  the  parties.  The 
French  king  (John),  confident  in  his  large  army,  would  listen 
to  no  terms  short  of  the  surrender  of  the  prince  and  one 

I 


130  HISTORY   OF    ENGLAND. 

hundred  of  his  bravest  knights.  Of  course,  these  demands 
were  treated  with  scorn  by  the  chivah-y  of  England,  and  on 
the  19th  September,  1356,  the  two  armies  joined  battle. 

It  was  as  hardly-won  a  field  as  had  been  that  of  Cre§y,  ten 
years  before.  Victory  rested  with  the  English,  and  at  the 
1356  ^^^^®  ^^  ^^®  ^^^  ^^®  French  king  was  a  captive  in  the 
hands  of  a  noble  enemy.  The  Black  Prince  treated 
him  with  the  gallantry  which  became  a  Christian  knight. 
The  following  year  they  entered  London,  the  royal  captive 
riding  on  a  cream-colored  charger,  richly  caparisoned,  whilst 
his  conqueror  rode  beside  him  on  a  small  black  palfrey,  in  the 
character  of  a  page. 

During  all  these  years  the  war  in  Scotland,  with  but  a  few 
intervals  of  truce,  had  been  carried  on.  The  son  of  the  great 
Bruce  had  not  the  patriotism  of  his  father.  After  becoming 
the  prisoner,  he  became  the  tool  of  the  English  king,  and 
even  aided  Edward's  designs  of  placing  one  of  his  sons,  an 
English  prince,  upon  the  throne  of  Scotland.  These  projects 
failed.  In  1371,  David  Bruce  died,  and  his  nephew,  Robert 
the  Stewart  of  Scotland,  succeeded  peaceably  to  the  throne. 
He  was  the  first  of  the  House  of  Stuart  who  wore  a  royal 
crown :  the  first  of  that  unhappy  line  of  princes,  whose  reigns, 
whether  in  England  or  Scotland,  were  one  series  of  mis- 
fortunes. 

After  the  death  of  King  John  of  France,  Charles,  sur- 

named  "  the  Wise,"  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  that  country. 

The  war  with  England  was  renewed.     It  was  con- 

1369. 

ducted  with  so  much  valor  and  ability  on  the  part  of 
the  French  monarch  and  his  generals,  that  by  the  year  1374, 
the  English  were  forced  to  make  peace.  By  the  terms  of  the 
treaty,  the  king  of  England  kept  only  Bordeaux,  Bayonne, 
and  a  few  other  towns  in  the  south  of  France,  with  Calais, 
and  a  small  portion  of  the  country  about  it,  in  the  north. 
Edward  III.  was  wont  to  say  of  Charles  the  Wise,  "  that  he 
had  never  known  a  king  fight  so  little,  and  yet  give  so  much 
trouble." 

On  Trinity  Sunday,  of  the  year  1376,  the  Black  Prince 


EDWARD   III.  131 

died.  The  great  estimation  in  which  he  was  held  was  mani- 
fested by  the  grief  of  the  nation  on  this  occasion.  They 
seemed  to  feel  that  with  him  the  glory  of  England  had 
departed.  He  was  buried  with  great  pomp  in  the  cathedral 
church  at  Canterbury,  not  fa:r  from  the  shrine  of  Thomas 
h  Becket.  On  the  death  of  the  Black  Prince,  his  son, 
Richard,  became  heir  apparent  to  the  throne. 

The  aged  King  Edward  survived  the  loss  of  his  beloved 
child  but  a  single  year.  He  died  at  his  manor  house  of 
Shene,  in  June,  1377.  The  death-bed  scene  of  this  great 
monarch  resembled  that  of  his  ancestor,  the  Conqueror. 
Nobles  and  courtiers  hastened  from  it  to  surround  the  young 
Prince  Richard.  Edward  was  left  with  an  attendant,  who, 
after  stealing  from  his  finger  a  valuable  ring,  left  him  to  die 
alone.  A  priest  then  came  to  his  bedside,  and  stood  holding 
a  crucifix  before  him  till  he  had  breathed  his  last. 

• 

Questions. — By  whom  was  the  kingdom  ruled  when  Edward  III. 
was  crowned  king  ? — To  whom  was  the  young  king  married  ? — 
Relate  the  overthrow  of  the  queen  and  Mortimer. — What  was  the 
condition  of  affairs  in  Scotland? — Describe  Edward's  conduct  to- 
wards this  kingdom. 

What  new  ambition  withdrew  him  from  Scotland? — On  what 
grounds  did  Edward  claim  the  crown  of  France? — How  was  the 
prospect  of  war  regarded  in  England? — Relate  the  circumstances 
which  led  to  the  battle  of  Cre9y. — Describe  that  battle. — What  were 
its  results  to  the  French  ? — Relate  what  is  told  of  the  siege  of  Calais, 
and  its  surrender. 

What  calamity  befell  Europe  during  the  years  1348-9  ? — When 
and  in  what  part  of  France  was  war  renewed  ? — Describe  the  battle 
of  Poictiers. — What  were  the  results  of  this  battle  ? — What  was  the 
state  of  affairs  in  Scotland  at  this  time  ? — What  was  the  condition 
of  the  war  in  France  between  the  years  1369  and  1374? — What 
event  probably  hastened  the  king's  death? — When,  where,  and 
under  what  circumstances  did  it  occur  ? 


132  HlttTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

RICHARD  II. 

WAT    TYLER'S    INSURRECTION —  MISGOVERNMENT— BOLINOBROKE     USURPS 
THE  CROWN. 

The  affection  of  the  nation  for  the  Black  Prince  seemed, 
from  the  time  of  his  death,  to  centre  almost  with  the  strength 
of  idolatry  in  his  young  son,  Richard  of  Bordeaux.  He  was 
so  named  from  his  birthplace,  his  father's  beautiful  capital  on 
the  banks  of  the  Garonne.  The  people  gave  full  scope  to 
these  feelings  at  the  coronation  of  Richard,  and  paid  to  this 
boy-king,  not  yet  eleven  years  old,  more  flattering  homage 

^  than  ever  his  grandfather,  the  great  Edward,  had 

received.     This  excess  of  flattery  did  its  evil  work 
upon  the  heart  of  the  young  monarch. 

One  of  the  king's  uncles  was  the  Duke  of  Lancaster,  better 
known  as  "John  of  Gaunt,"  because  of  his  birthplace  at 
Ghent  in  Flanders,  which  in  those  days  was  pronounced 
Gatuit.  This  nobleman  was  extremely  ambitious.  He  had 
married  a  Spanish  princess,  and  in  right  of  his  wife  laid 
claim  to  the  crown  of  Spain.  He  was  also  strongly  suspected 
of  a  design  to  supplant  his  nephew,  and  make  himself  king 
of  England. 

j3^g         The  Scots,  taking  advantage  of  the  youth  of  the 
to       king,  made  forays  across  the  border.     War,  too,  was 

^^^^'  carried  on  with  France.  To  raise  money  to  repel 
these  enemies,  as  the  kingdom  was  already  exhausted  by  the 
wars  of  the  previous  reigns,  parliament  laid  heavy  taxes  on 
the  people. 

One  of  these  taxes  was  particularly  odious.  It  was  a  poll- 
tax.  The  sum  of  three  groats  was  to  be  paid  by  every  person 
in  the  kingdom  over  fifteen  years  of  age.  The  manner  of 
collecting  this  money  was  in  many  instances  harsh,  and  the 


RICHARD   II.  133 

common  people,  already  more  alive  to  a  sense  of  their  wrongs 
than  they  had  been  in  any  previous  century,  rose  in  rebellion. 
In  Essex,  the  peasantry  armed  themselves  under  a  riotous 
fellow,  named,  from  his  occupation,  that  of  a  thresher,  "  Jack 
Straw,"  and,  calling  themselves  "  the  true  commons  of  Eng- 
land,'' committed  many  acts  of  violence. 

In  Kent,  one  of  the  tax-gatherers  entered  the  house  of 
Walter  the  Tyler,  and  demanded  the  tax  for  his  daughter,  a 
young  girl,  who,  her  mother  said,  was  under  the  specified  age. 
The  tax-gatherer  insisted  on  collecting  the  money,  and  became 
so  insolent,  that  the  father  of  the  child  fell  upon  him  and 
killed  him.  Soon  Walter,  or  Wat  Tyler,  as  he  is  usually 
called,  became  the  leader  of  a  mob  of  peasantry,  and  marched 
with  them  towards  London,  committing  no  small  amount  of 
violence  on  the  road.  A  body  of  nearly  one  hundred  thou- 
sand of  these  insurgents  encamped  at  Blackheath, 
where  their  passions  were  inflamed  by  the  preaching 
of  a  Kentish  monk,  who,  taking  for  his  text  the  old  adage, 

♦'When  Adam  delved  and  Eve  span, 
Where  was  then  the  gentleman  ?" 

told  them  that  all  should  be  rich  alike :  that  there  should  be 
no  upper  classes,  &c. 

Entering  London,  this  rabble  destroyed  the  beautiful  Savoy 
palace,  the  residence  of  John  of  Gaunt ;  they  drank  the  wines 
found  in  the  duke's  cellars,  and,  becoming  still  more  infuriated 
by  liquor,  proceeded  to  demolish  the  Temple,  the  Priory  of 
the  Knights  of  St.  John,  and  other  ancient  and  beautiful 
buildings.  The  insurgents  had  always  professed  affection  for 
the  young  king,  accusing  his  uncles  and  ministers  of  all  the 
oppressions  in  the  kingdom.  Richard  now  sent  them  word 
that  he  would  meet  them  at  Mile-End,  and  listen  to  ail  their 
complaints. 

About  sixty  thousand  of  the  rioters  kept  this  appointment, 
but  Wat  Tyler  and  a  large  body  of  the  peasantry  of  Kent 
were  not  present.  The  insurgents  demanded  "  the  total  abo- 
12 


134  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

lition  of  slavery  for  themselves  and  their  children  for  ever ; 
the  reduction  of  the  rent  of  good  land  to  fourpence  an  acre  j 
the  full  liberty  of  buying  and  selling  like  other  men  in  all 
fairs  and  markets;  and  a  general  pardon  for  all  past  ofi'ences." 
The  king  not  only  listened  to  these  demands,  but  forthwith 
set  thirty  clerks  to  writ«  out  charters,  in  which  all  they  asked 
was  granted. 

The  following  day,  as  the  king  rode  into  Smithfield,  he  met 
Wat  Tyler  and  the  other  rebels,  who  had  not  been  present  at 
the  meeting  at  Mile-End.  Wat  Tyler,  turning  to  his  men, 
said:  "Here  is  the  king;  I  will  go  speak  with  him.^'  So 
saying,  he  rode  boldly  up,  and,  it  is  said,  seized  the  bridle  of 
the  king's  horse.  At  this  moment,  Walworth,  the  mayor  of 
London,  plunged  a  dagger  into  the  insurgent's  throat.  When 
his  followers  saw  Wat  Tyler  fall,  they  cried :  "  We  are  be- 
trayed !  they  have  killed  our  captain  and  guide  !"  For  once, 
liichard  displayed  the  courage  and  spirit  of  his  ancestors. 
Riding  up  to  the  rebels,  he  exclaimed :  "  What  are  ye  doing, 
my  lieges !  I  am  your  king,  and  I  will  be  your  leader !"  The 
rebels  were  subdued.  Some  laid  down  their  weapons,  and 
others  fled. 

Not  thus,  however,  did  the  matter  end.  The  king  raised  a 
body  of  forty  thousand  horse,  and  then  informed  the  insur- 
gents "  that  all  his  charters  meant  nothing,  and  that  they 
must  return  to  their  old  bondage."  His  insincerity  was  fully 
confirmed,  for  his  revenge  was  not  gratified  until  fifteen  hun- 
dred of  "  the  true  commons  of  England"  had  perished  at  the 
hands  of  the  executioner. 

jggjj         The  king  surrounded  himself  with  favorites,  and 
to       the  eyes  of  the   nation,  which   had   hitherto  been 

1386.  ^ijjj(jg(j  ^j  ^YieiT  affection  for  the  son  of  the  Black 
Prince,  were  at  length  opened  to  his  misgovernment.  In 
1386  the  powerful  and  formidable  John  of  Gaunt  went  to 
Spain  to  fight  for  the  crown  of  Castile.  The  Duke  of  Glou- 
cester, another  of  Richard's  uncles,  obliged  the  king  to  resign 
the  government  into  the  hands  of  a  council  of  bishops  and 
nobles.     To  this  Richard  was  forced  to  submit,  until  the  year 


RICHARD   II.  135 

1389,  when  he  again  asserted  his  authority.  During  the 
government  of  Gloucester,  the  Scots,  under  Earl  Douglas, 
made  a  foray  across  the  English  border.  They  were  driven 
back  by  Henry  Percy,  and  on  the  15th  of  August,  1388,  the 
battle  of  Otterburn  was  fought  between  these  brave  young 
knights.  This  is  supposed  to  be  the  encounter  commemo- 
rated in  the  stirring  ballad  of  Chevy  Chase. 

In  the  year  1397,  Richard  found  means  to  revenge  him- 
self on  all  who  had  opposed  his  government.  His  uncle, 
Duke  of  Gloucester,  with  other  powerful  barons,  was  put  to 
death.  The  following  year,  taking  advantage  of  a  quarrel 
between  his  cousin,  Henry  Bolingbroke,  Duke  of  Hereford, 
and  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  he  banished  them  both  from  the 
land.  The  father  of  Hereford  was  the  powerful  John  of 
Gaunt.  He  did  not  long  survive  his  son's  departure,  dying 
early  in  the  year  1399.  Richard  then  seized  the  estates 
which  belonged  to  the  banished  Bolingbroke.  The  Duke 
of  York,  the  only  surviving  son  of  Edward  III.,  foreseeing 
that  it  might  imperil  his  crown,  entreated  the  king  not  to 
commit  this  deed.  Richard  would  not  yield  to  his  uncle's 
expostulations,  and  not  only  danger,  but  dethronement  and 
death,  followed  upon  this  seizure  of  "  the  royalties  and  rights 
of  banished  Hereford." 

Henry  Bolingbroke,  burning  with  the  sense  of  his 
injuries,  landed  in  England.  The  king  had  gone  on 
an  expedition  into  Ireland.  The  great  earls  of  Northumber- 
land and  Westmoreland,  with  all  the  friends  of  "  time-honored 
Lancaster,"  gathered  around  the  banished  earl,  and  welcomed 
him  to  his  own  again.  Richard  returned  to  England.  Trea- 
chery met  its  reward.  The  son  of  the  Black  Prince,  once 
the  idol  of  the  nation,  was  wholly  deserted,  and,  like  his 
ancestor,  Edward  II.,  became  a  fugitive  among  the  mountains 
of  Wales.  At  length,  he  surrendered  himself,  and,  at  Flint 
Castle,  held  an  interview  with  his  cousin,  Henry  Bolingbroke. 

Bolingbroke  thus  addressed  him  :  "  Your  people  complain 
that  you  have  ruled  them  harshly  for  twenty-two  years ;  but, 
if  it   please  God.   I  will   help  you   to   rule   them   better." 


136  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

Nothing  was  left  the  deserted  king  but  submission.  So  com- 
plete does  this  seem  to  have  been,  that  Shakspeare  makes 
Joan,  the  queen  mother,  exclaim  : 

"Hath  Bolingbroke  deposed  thine  intellect?" 

Richard  became  a  prisoner  in  Pontefract  Castle.  It  is 
little  doubted,  that  within  its  gloomy  walls,  this  once  idolized 
monarch  met  a  violent  death. 

Questions. — What  was  the  feeling  of  the  nation  towards  Richard? 
— Relate  the  account  given  of  the  Duke  of  Lancaster. — For  what 
expenditures  were  new  supplies  of  money  needed? — "What  tax  was 
especially  odious  to  the  people  ? — Relate  the  incident  which  gave 
rise  to  Wat  Tyler's  insurrection. — Describe  the  progress,  and  relate 
the  result  of  this  movement. 

What  treachery  and  cruelty  was  practised  by  the  king? — What 
measures  were  taken  to  restrain  the  king? — When,  whei-e,  and 
between  whom,  was  fought  the  battle  of  Chevy  Chase  ? — How  did 
the  king  revenge  himself  on  his  enemies? — What  act  of  injustice  did 
he  commit  in  1399? — In  what  did  it  result? — Who  espoused  the 
cause  of  Bolingbroke  ? — Describe  the  meeting  between  him  and  the 
king  at  Flint  Castle. — What  was  the  end  of  Richard  II.  ? 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

CONDITION  OF  ENGLAND  DURING  THE  FOURTEENTH  CENTURY. 

RELIGION — LEARNING    AND    LEARNED    MEN — LANGUAGE — LAW    SCHOOLS — 
INDUSTRY — MANNERS    AND    CUSTOMS. 

Lord  Morley,  a  great  English  baron,  having  trespassed 
on  the  grounds  of  a  bishop  of  Norwich,  was  compelled, 
despite  the  earnest  intercession  of  the  king,  to  do  severe 
penance  before  he  could  be  absolved  by  the  church.  He 
walked  to  the  cathedral  through  the  streets  of  the  town, 
barefoot,  and  with  head  uncovered,  carrying  in  his  hand  a 
lighted  wax  candle  of  great  weight.     There,  in  the  sight  of 


ENGLAND   DURING   THE    FOURTEENTH   CENTURY.       137 

a  vast  multitude,  he  humbly  begged  pardon  of  the  haughty 
prelate.  This  incident  may  afford  some  idea  of  the  pride 
and  power  of  the  clergy  of  England  about  the  middle  of  this 
century.  Before  its  close,  the  steady  opposition  of  kings  and 
parliaments  had  curbed  the  excessive  tyranny  of  the  papacy 
in  England. 

Irreligion  prevailed  among  all  classes.  The  Lord's  day  was 
so  openly  profaned  that,  in  the  year  1359,  the  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  forbade  fairs  and  markets  to  be  kept  on  Sundays, 
and  commanded  "  all  persons  to  go  to  the  parish  churches  on 
that  day,  to  ask  pardon  for  their  offences,  and  to  make  amends 
for  all  the  omissions  and  commissions  of  the  preceding  week." 
Over  this  dark  horizon  of  false  doctrine  and  evil  practice  arose 
a  gleam  of  purer  light.  This  was  imparted  by  the  life  and 
writings  of  John  Wickliffe,  a  priest  of  Lutterworth,  in  Leices- 
tershire. He  is  beautifully  called  "  the  Morning  Star"  of  the 
Reformation,  in  allusion  to  his  having  preceded  Luther  by 
nearly  two  hundred  years. 

The  extortions  of  the  begging  friars  first  roused  Wickliffe, 
who,  in  his  lectures  at  Oxford,  preached  with  much  severity 
against  them  as  well  as  against  the  clergy  generally.  In  1374 
he  was  sent  to  Rome,  on  an  embassy  from  the  king.  There 
he  was  filled,  as  in  later  times  was  the  great  Luther,  with 
indignation  at  the  corruption  and  extravagance  of  the  papal 
court.  His  preaching  in  England  at  length  drew  upon  him 
the  persecutions  of  the  clergy.  Summoned  before  the  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  and  the  bishop  of  London,  in  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral,  he  was  supported  by  no  less  a  champion  than  John 
of  G-aunt,  the  great  Duke  of  Lancaster.  Wickliffe,  thus 
befriended,  escaped  the  snares  of  his  enemies.  On  another 
occasion,  when  his  judges  held  their  court  at  Lambeth, 
Wickliffe  came  attended  by  so  large  a  body  of  the  citizens  of 
London,  that  the  prelates  dared  not  pronounce  sentence 
against  him. 

The  last  two  years  of  his  life  were  devoted,  in  the  quiet 
rectory  of  Lutterworth,  to  the  noblest  of  all  his  labors — the 
12* 


138  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

translation  of  the  Word  of  God  into  the  mother  tongue  of  the 
people. 

This  good  man  died  of  a  stroke  of  palsy, "on  the  last  day  of 
the  year  1384:.  His  enemies  rejoiced,  and  thirty  years  later 
testified  their  enmity  by  ordering  his  remains  to  be  taken 
from  their  grave  and  the  ashes  thrown  into  a  little  rivulet, 
one  of  the  branches  of  the  Avon.  *'  Thus,"  as  Fuller  truly 
and  beautifully  remarks,  "  this  brook  did  convey  his  ashes 
into  Avon,  Avon  into  Severn,  Severn  into  the  narrow  sea; 
and  this  into  the  wide  ocean.  And  so  the  ashes  of  Wickliffe 
are  the  emblem  of  his  doctrine,  which  is  now  dispersed  all  the 
world  over." 

The  fashion  of  building  and  endowing  colleges,  which 
l)egan  in  the  thirteenth  century,  increased  during  the  four- 
teenth. In  Oxford  rose  Exeter  and  Oriel  Colleges,  the  one 
the  work  of  a  king,  the  other  of  a  bishop ;  whilst  the  good 
Philippa  gave  name  to  Queen's  College,  the  foundation  of  her 
chaplain,  Robert  Eglesfield.  William  of  Wykehaui,  bishop 
of  Winchester,  was  a  famous  founder  of  schools,  colleges,  and 
churches.  New  College,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  inte- 
resting at  Oxford,  owes  its  establishment  to  him. 

Halls  and  colleges  arose  on  the  banks  of  the  silvery  Cam. 
One  of  these  was  the  foundation  of  a  lady,  Mary  de  St.  Paul, 
the  wife  of  Aymer  de  Valence,  Earl  of  Pembroke.  Her  hus- 
band, it  is  said,  was  killed  in  a  tournament  on  the  day  of  their 
marriage.  The  widowed  bride  retired  from  the  world,  and 
spent  a  widowhood  of  forty-two  years  in  works  of  piety  and 
charity.  She  built,  at  Catubridge,  a  college  for  a  master  and 
fifty  scholars,  naming  it  "  The  Hall  of  Valence  and  Mary." 
It  is  best  known,  however,  as  Pembroke  Hall.  University, 
King's,  Clare,  and  Trinity  Halls,  and  Bennet  College,  were 
among  the  foundations  of  this  century  at  Cambridge. 

The  universities,  as  well  as  the  schools  in  London,  of  which 
many  were  founded  at  this  time,  were  crowded  with  students, 
not  only  from  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  but  also  from 
the  continent.     In  this  age  Oxford  and  Cambridge  sent  forth 


ENGLAND   DURING  THE   FOURTEENTH   CENTURY.      139 

men  whose  names  are  venerated  wherever  the  English  lan- 
guage is  spoken. 

Geoffrey  Chaucer,  the  father  of  English  poetry,  was  a 
student  at  both  these  universities.  His  writings  render  it 
probable  that  he  was  an  ardent  Wickliffite,  as  he  is  unsparing 
in  his  censures  of  the  corrupt  doctrines  and  practices  of  the 
Romish  Church.  This  great  poet  died  in  London,  and  was 
buried  in  Westminster  Abbey,  the  first  of  that  long  line  of 
English  bards  who  have  made  "  the  Poet's  Corner"  a  place 
of  almost  sacred  interest. 

The  old  chronicler  and  poet,  Froissart,  lived  and  wrote  in 
this  century.  He  is  especially  loud  in  his  praises  of  the  chivalry 
of  the  Black  Prince.  He  presented  a  volume  of  his  poems  to 
the  son  of  his  favorite  knight.  The  volume  was  bound  in  crim- 
son velvet,  having  silver  clasps,  and  ornamented  with  golden 
roses.  The  poems  written  in  French  were  transcribed  by  the 
author's  own  hand,  and  beautifully  illuminated 

The  English  in  which  WicklifFe  translated  the  Bible  and 
Chaucer  wrote  his  "  Canterbury  Tales,"  is  very  different  from 
the  English  which  we  now  speak  and  read.  For  a  long  time 
Latin  had  been  the  language  of  the  learned,  of  the  laws,  of 
the  schools,  and  of  the  church ;  French  the  language  of  the 
court  and  of  the  nobles..  The  Saxon  tongue  was  that  of  the 
large  body  of  the  people.  Depressed  and  despised  for  a  time 
were  those  who  used  it,  but  they  proved  faithful  guardians  of 
the  good  old  Saxon  speech ;  and  now  the  time  came  when  it 
should  triumph  and  become  the  basis  of  the  language  which 
we  call  English.     The  other  elements  are  French  and  Latin. 

By  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  Saxon  and  Nor- 
man had  become  one  people.  Scholars  began  to  compose 
their  works  in  English.  Parliament  passed  laws  that  the 
pleadings  in  courts  should  be  in  the  tongue  of  the  people. 
By  the  close  of  the  century  English  must  have  found  its  way 
into  the  royal  palaces.  Shakspeare  makes  the  Duchess  of 
York  exclaim,  in  pleading  for  her  son  to  Henry  IV., 

"  Speak  pardon,  as  'tis  current  in  our  land ; 
This  chopping  French  we  do  not  understand." 


l-\0  HISTORY  OP  ENGLAND. 

Famous  schools  were  founded  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Westminster  for  law  students.  These  were  called  Inns  of 
Court  and  Inns  of  Chancery.  Lincolir's  Inn  was  so  named  in 
honor  of  its  founder,  an  Earl  of  Lincoln,  who  lived  in  Edward 
II.'s  reign.  When  the  order  of  Knights  Templars  was  broken 
up,  the  Temple  buildings  were  given  to  the  students  of  com- 
mon law. 

By  Edward  III 's  reign  we  find  the  Enghsh  parliament 
divided  into  two  houses.  In  the  Lords  sat  all  the  higher 
clergy,  and  the  earls  and  barons  who  held  immediately  of  the 
king.  The  House  of  Commons  was  composed  of  knights  of 
shires,  citizens,  and  burgesses.  The  former  were  summoned 
by  a  writ  from  the  king ;  the  latter  by  a  writ  directed  to  the 
sheriff  of  the  county  which  they  represented.  The  Commons 
had  grown  into  so  important  a  body,  that  it  became  necessary 
for  them  to  choose  a  speaker,  who  should  preside  in  their 
councils,  and  communicate  between  them  and  the  king  and 
upper  house.  The  first  speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons 
was  Sir  Peter  de  la  More,  a  knight  from  Herefordshire. 

The  body  destined  to  become  so  powerful,  was,  during  this 
age,  but  a  tool  in  the  hands  of  the  monarch  and  the  House 
of  Lords.  On  one  occasion  a  commoner  having  introduced  a 
bill  displeasing  to  the  king,  narrowJy  escaped  death.  The 
house,  in  delivering  up  the  offender,  assured  the  sovereign 
"that  it  never  was  their  intent  to  speak,  show,  or  act  any- 
thing which  should  be  an  offence  or  give  displeasure  to  his 
majesty." 

Edward  III.  introduced  a  new  order  of  nobility,  that  of 
dukes.  The  Black  Prince  was  the  first  on  whom  this  title 
was  conferred:  he  was  made  Duke  of  Cornwall.  Edward 
also  instituted  the  order  of  Knights  of  the  Garter. 

Many  of  the  guilds  or  brotherhoods  which  had  existed  in 
former  centuries  became,  during  the  course  of  this,  incorpo 
rated  into  the  great  city  companies,  on  which  were  bestowed 
many  valuable  privileges.  These  companies  numbered  among 
their  members  kings  and  nobles.     Such  was  the  Merchant 


ENGLAND    DURING   THE    rOURTEENTH    CEiNTURY.      141 

Tailors'  Company,  to  which  Edward  III.  belonged ;  the  Skin- 
ners, the  Goldsmiths,  &c. 

There  were  no  large  warehouses.  The  shops  of  the 
trades-people  resembled  sheds  and  stalls,  and  most  of  the 
trade  was  carried  on  at  fairs.  Dealers  in  silks  and  ribbons, 
and  in  other  articles  imported  from  Milan,  were  called  milli- 
ners. 

Edward  III.,  in  order  to  make  the  English  more  independ- 
ent of  their  Flemish  neighbors,  invited  companies  of  Flem- 
ings, weavers,  to  settle  in  England,  so  that  the  native  wool 
could  be  made  into  materials  for  garments  without  being  sent 
out  of  the  country. 

Coal,  which  had  been  discovered  at  Newcastle  upon  Tyne, 
in  the  preceding  century,  now  became  an  article  of  export. 
It  was  furnished  in  such  abundance  from  this  port,  that  "like 
carrying  coals  to  Newcastle,"  has  passed  into  a  proverb.  When 
the  burning  of  coal  was  first  introduced  into  London,  the 
smoke  was  considered  so  injurious  as  well  as  disagreeable, 
that  the  brewers,  dyers,  and  others  who  employed  this  fuel, 
were  complained  of,  and  a  law  was  passed  forbidding  the  use 
of  it.  The  prejudice  ceased  after  a  while,  and  now  bitu- 
minous coal  constitutes  almost  the  entire  fuel  of  the  great 
metropolis. 

England  was  rich  in  gold  and  silver  plate.  When  Wat 
Tyler's  insurgents  robbed  the  Savoy  palace,  the  silver  and 
gold  plate  alone  would  have  loaded  five  carts. 

Chivalry,  with  all  its  magnificence  of  joust  and  tournament, 
was  in  its  full  glory,  especially  during  the  reign  of  King 
Edward  III. 

With  the  common  people  a  species  of  theatrical  performance, 
called  Mysteries  or  Miracle-plays,  was  high  in  favor.  The 
churches  were  turned  into  theatres,  the  priests  became  play 
actors,  and  the  subjects  of  these  plays  were  taken  from  the 
most  striking  and  solemn  scenes  in  the  Bible  history.  The 
Creation,  the  Deluge,  the  Massacre  of  the  Innocents,  and 
even  the  Crucifixion   of  our  Lord,  were   among  the   most 


142  HISTORY    OF   ENLJLAND. 

admired  of  these  miracle-plays,  in  which  the  priests  did  not 
hesitate  to  represent  the  holy  persons  of  the  Trinity. 

The  sacred  events  commemorated  by  the  festivals  of  the 
church  were  entirely  lost  sight  of,  amidst  the  profane  and 
almost  pagan  revelry  with  which  they  were  celebrated.  At 
Christmas  was  heW  what  might  well  be  called  "  The  Feast  of 
Fools,"  during  which  the  lowest  of  the  people  were  allowed 
to  assume  the  highest  dignities.  A  jester  might  personate  a 
cardinal,  a  villain  might  play  the  part  of  pope,  and  so  on.  In 
such  characters  the  rabble  would  enter  the  churches  and  per- 
form the  most  shocking  parodies  of  the  church  service. 

On  St.  Nicholas'  Day,  the  6th  of  December,  the  boys  of  St. 
Paul's  were  allowed  to  choose  from  their  number  one  whom 
they  called  a  boy-bishop.  He  was  presented  with  mitre  and 
staff,  and  decked  out,  as  were  also  his  companions,  in  the 
splendid  attire  worn  by  the  clergy  of  that  day.  In  this  guise 
they  went  to  the  cathedral,  where  they  mimicked  the  religious 
services,  the  boy-bishop  preaching  the  sermon.  This  over, 
they  proceeded  from  house  to  house,  singing  and  dancing, 
their  leader  blessing  the  people  who  stood  at  their  doors  to 
witness  the  absurd  ceremony,  and  to  bestow  pennies  upon  the 
performers.  The  boy-bishop  kept  his  office  until  Holy  Inno- 
cents' Day. 

At  Christmas  certain  persons  were  chosen  to  preside  over 
the  revels.  They  were  called  "Abbots  of  Unreason,"  and 
"Lords  of  Misrule."  Such  were  the  noisy  sports  of  the 
English  of  the  fourteenth  century;  but  happiness  is  not 
greatest  where  merriment  is  loudest,  and  we  have  no  reason 
to  regret  that  these  rude  amusements  have  giveft  place  to 
more  rational  and  quiet  diversions. 

Among  all  classes  great  extravagance  in  dress  prevailed. 
We  hear  of  a  courtier  having  fifty-two  suits  of  cloth  of  gold. 
An  English  beau  of  this  age  must  have  presented  a  strange 
appearance.  He  wore  long-pointed  shoes,  turned  up  and 
fastened  to  his  knees  by  chains  of  gold  and  silver.  His  hose 
were  of  a  different  color  for  each  leg.     The  jacket  too  was 


ENGLAND   DURING    TllK   FOURTEENTH    CENTURY.       143 

parti-colored,  and  the  sleeves  terminated  at  the  elbow  in  long 
white  streamers.  The  mantle  was  lined  with  ermine,  the 
edges  cut  in  the  form  of  leaves.  It  was  fastened  on  the 
shoulder  by  four  or  five  large  buttons.  On  his  head  he  wore 
a  silk  hood,  embroidered  with  figures  of  animals,  and  some- 
times ornamented  with  precious  stones. 

The  dress  of  women  was  not  more  commendable  than  that 
of  men.  At  one  time  their  head-dresses  towered  nearly  three 
feet  above  the  head,  and  were  ornamented  with  streamers  of 
silk,  long  enough  to  flow  upon  the  ground. 

Extravagance  in  eating  had  reached  such  a  height,  that 
laws  were  passed  regulating  the  number  of  dishes  to  be  served 
at  the  tables  of  ordinary  subjects. 

During  this  period  the  peasantry  of  England  emerged,  in  a 
great  degree,  from  the  hard  condition  of  villanage  in  which 
they  had  been  hitherto  held.  The  unlimited  and  ignoble 
services  required  of  a  villain  by  his  lord,  became  less  oppres- 
sive in  character,  and  more  strictly  defined  in  amount.  By 
degrees  even  these  were  converted  into  money  payments,  so 
that  the  relation  between  lord  and  villain  resembled  more 
nearly  the  present  relation  of  landlord  and  tenant.  Many 
villains  were  set  free  by  the  piety  of  their  lords.  Some 
escaped,  and  secured  their  liberty  by  residing  a  year  and  a 
day  within  a  walled  town,  after  which  the  law  did  not  permit 
their  recovery.  Others  fled  to  a  distance  beyond  the  reach 
of  their  masters.  Thus,  in  various  ways,  there  grew  up  in 
the  midst  of  English  society,  both  in  town  and  country,  a 
large  body  of  free  artisans  and  laborers. 

Though  much  lessened  and  mitigated,  villanage  still  existed, 
and  the  light  in  which  the  common  people  were  regarded  may 
be  gathered  from  the  following  mention  of  them.  In  an 
encounter  in  France,  called  ''  the  little  war  of  Chalons,"  an 
old  chronicler  says :  The  English  ransomed  the  knights,  but 
slew  many  of  the  French  foot  soldiers,  "  because  they  were 
but  rascals,  and  no  great  account  was  made  of  them."  Sad 
proof  of  the  barbarism  of  the  times,  and  how  little  the  vaunted 


144  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

spirit  of  chivalry  could  supply  that  Christian  spirit  of  love 
which  "  condescends  to  men  of  low  estate." 

Questions. — Relate  the  anecdote  given  in  illustration  of  the  power 
of  the  clergy. — By  what  was  this  power  checked  towards  the  close 
of  this  century  ? — State  what  is  told  of  the  desecration  of  Sundaj-. 
— Who  was  Wicklifie  ? — Against  whom  did  he  preach  ? — With  what 
result? — By  whom  was  he  upheld? — Mention  the  greatest  of  his 
labors. — What  was  the  treatment  of  l^s  remains? 

Name  the  colleges  erected  at  Oxford  during  this  period,  and  their 
founders.— What  is  told  of  the  founder  of  Pembroke  Hall?— What 
account  is  given  of  Chaucer? — Describe  the  gift  presented  to  Rich- 
ard II. — By  whom  was  it  given? — Name  the  three  languages  used  in 
England. — By  whom  were  they  severally  adopted? — Wliich  formed 
the  basis  of  our  present  language  ? 

Give  some  account  of  the  law  schools  founded  in  London. — De- 
scribe the  composition  of  the  English  parliament  during  this  period. 
— Describe  the  character  of  the  Commons.— Relate  the  origin  and 
importance  of  the  great  city  companies. — What  body  of  foreign  arti- 
sans were  invited  to  England  ? — What  is  said  of  the  introduction  of 
coal  ? — Describe  the  amusements  of  this  age. — What  is  said  of 
Christmas  festivities? — What  ceremonies  took  place  on  St.  Nicholas' 
day  ? — Give  some  description  of  the  costumes  of  those  days. — What 
great  improvement  took  place  in  the  condition  of  the  villains. — 
What  is  said  of  the  regard  in  which  the  common  people  were  held  ? 


HENRY    IV.  145 


PART  VII. 
ENGLAND  DURING  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. 

HENRY  IV.— HENRY  V  —HENRY  VI.— EDWARD  IV.— 
RICHARD  IIL-HENRY  VII. 

A.  D.  1399—1509. 

"She  saw  her  sons  with  purple  deaths  expire, 
Her  sacred  domes  involved  in  rolling  fire, 
A  dreadful  series  of  intestine  wars, 
Inglorious  triumphs  and  dishonest  scars." 

POPK. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

HENRY   IV. 

CONSPIRACIES — REBELLION — PRINCE    HENRY — THE    KING'S    ADVICE. 

The  fifteenth  century  was  a  time  of  so  much  war  and 
tumult,  that  it  may  well  be  called  one  of  the  most  unhappy 
periods  of  English  history. 

At  the  close  of  the  previous  century,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  Henry  of  Lancaster,  a  grandson  of  Edward  III.,  had 
deposed  his  cousin   Richard,  and  placed  himself  upon  the 
throne.     Henry  IV.  obtained,  by  this   deed   of  violence,  a 
crown  to  which  he  had  no  right.     The  true  heir,  after  Rich- 
ard, was  Edmund  Mortimer,  Earl  of  March,  a  descendant  of 
the  second  son  of  Edward  III.,  whereas  Henry  of  Lancaster 
was  only  descended  from  the  third  son  of  that  monarch. 
1^99         Henry  IV.,  having  thus  become  king,  was  soon 
made  to  feel  how  thrice  ^'  uneasy  lies  the  head  that 
wears   a  crown,"   when    that  crown    has   been   obtained    by 
13  K 


146  hisjorv  Of  England. 

injustice  and  wrong.  Conspiracies  arose  against  him.  One 
night,  when  the  atraio  which  composed  his  bed  was  examined 
a  sharp  steel  weapon  was  found  concealed  in  it,  which  would 
no  doubt  have  killed  or  seriously  injured  the  king,  had  he  lain 
down  upon  it. 

Henry  IV.  had  been  aided  in  his  usurpation  of  the  throne, 
by  the  Duke  of  Northumberland,  his  son  Henry  Percy  (the 
Harry  Hotspur  of  Shakspeare),  and  Northumberland's  brother, 
the  Earl  of  Worcester.  Henry's  ungrateful  conduct  to  this 
powerful  family  of  the  Percys,  at  length  roused  them  to  rebel 
against  him.  They  were  joined  by  the  Scottish  earl,  Douglas, 
and  the  Welsh  prince,  Owen  ap-GryfFyth  Vaughan  )  the  latter 
better  known  by  the  name  of  Glendower,  from  the  district  in 
Wales  of  which  he  was  a  native. 
,  .__  The  king  was  no  sooner  made  aware  of  this  for- 
midable  rising,  than  he  prepared,  with  a  large  force, 
to  suppress  it.  Owing  to  the  illness  of  Northumberland,  and 
the  absence  of  Glendower,  the  strength  of  the  conspirators  was 
greatly  weakened  ]  and  when  the  two  armies  met  in  battle  at 
Shrewsbury,  although  Percy  and  Douglas  performed  deeds  of 
great  valor,  the  one  was  slain,  the  other  taken  prisoner,  and 
their  cause  entirely  lost.  :^ 

In  the  battle  of  Shrewsbury,  Prince  Henry,  the  eldest  son 
of  the  king,  gave  the  first  proof  of  that  valor  which,  in  after 
years,  rendered  his  military  career  so  glorious.  This  young 
prince  had  filled  his  father's  heart  with  sorrow  and  anxiety. 
Surrounded  by  wild  companions,  he  spent  his  time  amid  scenes 
and  occupations  totally  unfitted  to  prepare  him  for  the  cares 
of  a  crown,  or  the  wise  government  of  a  kingdom.  On  one 
occasion,  however,  there  had  gleamed  forth  the  promise  of  a 
nobler  spirit.  One  of  Prince  Henry's  evil  companions  had 
been  brought  for  trial  before  the  Chief  Justice  jjascoigne. 
The  latter  refused  to  release  the  culprit,  notwithstanding  the 
prince's  earnest  solicitations.  Whereupon,  Henry,  becoming 
indignant,  behaved  in  a  manner  so  insulting  to  the  dignity  of 
the  court,  that  the  chief  justice  ordered  him  to  the  King's 
Bench  prison.     To  this  punishment  the  prince  submitted. 


HENRY    IV.  147 

1 

When  the  incident  was  related  to  the  king,  he  exclaimed : 
''  Happy  is  the  king  that  has  a  magistrate  endowed  with 
courage  to  execute  the  laws  upon  such  an  offender:  still  more 
happy  in  having  a  son  willing  to  submit  to  such  a  chastise- 
ment." 

One  of  the  most  interesting  episodes  in  the  history  of  this 
reign,  is  the  story  of  the  captivity  of  the  young  Prince  James, 
afterwards  James  I.  of  Scotland.  The  royal  boy  had  been 
embarked  for  France  to  save  him  from  the  hands  of  his  uncle, 
the  ruthless  Duke  of  Albany,  who  had  seized  the  government 
of  the  country.  The  vessel  was  captured  by  some  English 
cruisers,  and  the  prince,  a  boy  of  only  twelve  years,  was 
brought  a  prisoner  to  the  English  court. 

Seldom  had  a  captive  less  cause  to  bewail  his  captivity,  than 
the  young  heir  of  the  Scottish  throne  the  nineteen  years  of 
his  detention  in  England.  The  Round  Tower  of  Windsor 
Castle  was  appropriated  to  his  use,  and  there,  amid  the 
beauties  of  nature,  having  access  to  the  best  masters  and 
books  of  the  age,  conversing  with  men  of  learning  and 
refinement,  he  developed  into  one  of  the  sweetest  poets  as 
well  as  one  of  the  noblest  characters  of  his  time. 

His  most  celebrated  work,  called  ''The  King's  Quair"  or 
Book,  is  a  tender  and  elegant  poem,  suggested  by  his  love  for 
the  Lady  Joanna  Beaufort,  an  English  princess  whom  he 
afterwards  married.  James  survived  his  restoration  to  the 
throne  only  thirteen  years,  falling  the  victim  to  a  conspiracy 
among  his  turbulent  nobles  in  1436. 

In  the  year  1405,  a  conspiracy  was  raised  against  the 
English  king,  headed  by  Scroop,  archbishop  of  York,  and 
the  Earl  of  Northumberland.  By  treacherous  promises  the 
forces  of  the  conspirators  were  disbanded,  and  the  venerable 
prelate  seized  and  beheaded.  This  was  the  first  instance,  in 
English  history,  of  sentence  of  death  being  executed  against 
an  archbishop. 

Although  Henry  of  Lancaster  could  defeat  the  efi'orts  of 
his  human  foes,  he  could  not  silence  the  still  small  voice  of 
conscience,  which  ever  reminded  him,  "  by  what  by-paths,  and 


148  HISTORY    OF    KNGLAND. 

t 

indirect,  crooked  ways,"  he  had  gained  his  crown.  Fearing 
that  it  might  prove  an  insecure  possession  to  his  son,  the 
king  advised  that  prince,  whenever  he  should  succeed  to  the 
inheritance,  to  busy  his  subjects  in  foreign  wars,  and  thus 
divert  their  minds  from  a  too  close  inquiry  into  his  title  to 
the  throne. 

In  March,  of  the  year  1413,  whilst  King  Henry  was  pray- 
ing before  the  shrine  in  Edward  the  Confessor's  chapel,  he 
was  seized  with  a  fit,  and  carried  by  his  attendants  to  the 
lodgings  of  the  abbot.  There,  in  an  apartment  known  as 
"  The  Jerusalem  Chamber,"  on  the  20th  of  the  month,  he 
breathed  his  last.  His  remains  were  interred  in  a  beautiful 
tomb  in  Canterbury  cathedral. 

Questions. — How  does  the  fifteenth  century  compare  with  other 
periods  of  English  history  ? — How  did  Henry  IV. 's  claim  to  the  crown 
compare  with  that  of  the  Earl  of  March? — How  was  Henry  IV. 's 
seizure  of  the  crown  punished  ? — To  whom  was  Henry  indebted  for 
his  throne  ? — How  did  he  act  towards  the  Percys,  and  what  was  the 
result  ? — Who  aided  the  Percys  in  their  conspiracy  ? — Where  was  a 
battle  fought,  and  with  what  result  ? 

How  did  Prince  Henry  distinguish  himself  at  Shrewsbury  ? — What 
had  been  his  previous  conduct? — Pv elate  the  anecdote  given  of  Prince 
Henry  and  the  chief  justice. — W^hat  conspiracy  arose  in  1405? — How 
was  it  defeated  and  punished  ? — Was  it  customary  to  inflict  capital 
punishment  on  the  clergy? — What  advice  did  the  king  give  to  his 
son,  Prince  Henry  ? — Relate  the  circumstances  of  the  king's  death. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

HENRY  V. 

WARS  IN  FRANCE — AGINCOITRT — TREATY  OP  TROYES — HENRY'S  DEATH. 

Prince  Henry,  upon  his  accession  to  the  throne, 
given  him. 


1413. 

hastened  to  adopt  the  advice  which  his  father  had 


HENRY   V.  149 

Before  two  years  had  passed,  he  revived  the  claim  made  by 
his  ancestor,  Edward  III.,  to  the  crown  of  France,  and,  en- 
gaging in  war  with  that  country,  effectually  turned  the  minds 
of  the  nation  from  any  dangerous  questioning  of  his  title  to 
the  sceptre  of  England. 

Before  commencing  his  wars  in  France,  Henry  had  won 
the  hearts  of  the  English  by  his  generous  treatment  of  the 
young  Earl  of  March,  who,  having  been  kept  in  prison  during 
the  late  reign,  was  now  set  free,  and  treated  with  kindness. 
The  remains  of  King  Kichard  were,  by  Henry's  orders,  in- 
terred with  great  pomp  in  Westminster  Abbey,  and  the  son 
of  Harry  Hotspur  recalled  from  exile,  and  reinstated  in  the 
honors  and  estates  of  the  Percys. 

The  condition  of  France  at  this  time  was  such  as  to 
tempt  the  ambition  of  the  English  king.  A  quarrel 
between  the  Houses  of  Orleans  and  Burgundy,  as  to  which 
should  govern  the  country  during  the  minority  of  the  young 
French  king,  was  distracting  the  nation  with  civil  war.  So 
violent  were  the  feelings  of  hatred  between  the  Burgundians 
and  Orleanists,  that  they  would  not  unite,  even  to  defend 
their  country,  when  threatened  by  a  powerful  foreign  enemy. 

In  the  summer  of  1415,  Henry  V.,  with  thirty  thousand 
men,  landed  in  France.  He  captured  Harfleur,  but  disease 
invaded  his  camp,  and  made  such  frightful  ravages,  that,  with 
the  losses  sustained  in  the  siege,  the  English  army  was  re- 
duced to  ten  thousand  men,  when  commencing  its  march 
towards  Calais.  Everywhere  the  peasantry  were  treated  with 
kindness,  and  the  robberies  and  violence  so  often  committed 
by  troops  marching  through  an  enemy's  country,  were  re- 
strained. 

The  French  were  sixty  thousand  strong.  They  obstructed 
the  passage  of  the  rivers,  and  hung  on  the  rear  of  Henry's 
army,  as  they  had  done  some  seventy  years  before,  when  this 
monarch's  great-grandfather  was  the  invader. 

At  length,  from  a  hill  near  the  castle  of  Agin  court,  the 
English  king  beheld  the  whole  French  force,  ready  for  an 
13* 


150  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

encounter.  It  was  a  perilous  prospect,  six  men  to  one ;  but, 
notwithstanding  these  fearful  odds,  Henry  determined  to  give 
battle  the  following  day.  He  sent  David  Gam,  his  faithful 
Welsh  squire,  to  reconnoitre,  and  report  the  number  of  the 
enemy.  The  squire  returned,  telling  his  master  "  there  were 
enough  to  fight,  enough  to  be  killed,  and  enough  to  run  away.'' 
Before  the  battle.  King  Henry,  mounted  on  a  gray 
^1415^*  palfrey,  and  wearing  "  a  helmet  of  polished  steel,  sur- 
mounted with  a  crown  of  gold,  set  with  sparkling 
gems,  and  the  arms  of  England  and  France  embroidered  in 
gold/'  on  his  surcoat,  rode  in  front  of,  his  army,  and,  with 
animated  eye  and  voice,  addressed  his  followers. 

He  spoke  of  the  glorious  victories  which  their  ancestors  had 
won  on  French  territory,  and  exclaimed :  ''  England  shall 
never  pay  ransom  for  me;  on  the  field  of  battle,  I  have  vowed 
to  conquer  or  die !"  When  one  of  his  knights  expressed  the 
wish  "that  some  of  the  brave  knights  and  stout  archers  living 
in  idleness  in  merry  England,"  could  be  present  on  the  field, 
the  king  replied:  "No!  I  would  not  have  a  single  man  more. 
If  God  gives  us  the  victory,  the  fewer  we  are,  the  more  honor; 
and  if  we  lose,  the  less  will  be  the  loss  to  our  country." 

Notwithstanding  the  fearful  disparity  of  numbers,  they  won 
the  victory,  and  before  the  chivalry  of  England  fell  the  pride 
and  flower  of  the  French  nobility.  Seven  near  relatives  of 
the  French  king  lay  dead  upon  the  field,  and  eight  thousand 
brave  knights  perished  by  their  side.  Dreadful  had  been  the 
scene  of  carnage.  When  it  was  over,  the  abbot  of  a  neigh- 
boring monastery  bought  twenty-five  roods  of  land,  in  which 
three  great  pits  were  dug,  and  into  them  were  thrown  five 
thousand  eight  hundred  of  those  who  had  fallen  in  the  battle. 
"  Then  the  bishop  of  Guines  went  down,  and  sprinkled  with 
holy  water,  and  blessed  this  vast  sepulchre  of  the  aristocracy 
of  France." 

Enthusiastic  was  the  reception  which  the  hero  of  Agincourt 
met  on  his  return  to  England.  As  he  approached  the  coast 
at  Dover,  the  people  rushed  into  the  sea  to  meet  him,  and 
swam  with  him  on  their  shoulders,  in  triumph  to  the  shore. 


HENRY  V.  151 

The  war  with  France  was  highly  popular,  and  sup- 
plies were  readily  granted  to  carry  it  on. 
The  quarrel  between  the  Orleanists  and  the  Burgundians 
was  still  kept  up,  and  the  English  gained  ground.  The  city 
of  Rouen  was  taken,  and,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  all  the 
country  north  of  the  river  Loire  submitted  to  the  conquerors. 
In  the  year  1420,  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  the  leader  of  one 
of  the  two  parties  which  divided  France,  entered  into  an 
alliance  with  the  English,  and  the  famous  treaty  of  Troyes 
was  made  between  them.  In  fulfilment  of  the  terms  of  this 
treaty,  Henry  V.  married  Catherine,  the  daughter  of  the 
French  king,  and  was  proclaimed  regent  of  France,  with  the 
promise  of  succeeding  to  the  throne.  The  existing  monarch, 
Charles  VI.,  was  insane,  and  wholly  incapable  of  the  cares 
of  government,  and  the  dauphin  had  joined  the  Orleanists, 
who  still  kept  up  the  struggle  against  England. 

Whilst  pursuing  successfully  his  war  against  this  faction, 
the  Eno-lish  kino;  was  seized  by  the  hand  of  death. 
The  end  of  Henry  V.  is  a  pleasing  contrast  to  that  of 
many  a  crowned  monarch.  In  the  castle  of  the  Bois  de  Yin- 
cennes,  he  summoned  his  brothers  and  the  great  nobles  of  the 
realm  to  his  bedside.  With  calmness  and  wisdom  he  gave 
counsel  for  the  management  of  his  kingdom.  He  appointed 
his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  protector  of  England,' 
during  the  minority  of  his  son,  the  infant  Prince  of  Wales, 
and  he  made  the  Duke  of  Bedford  regent  of  France. 

Then,  turning  froiji  the  cares  of  earth,  he  spent  the  last 
hours  of  hi^  life  in  devotional  exercises.  The  funeral  cere- 
monies with  which  the  remains  of  this  popular  sovereign  were 
borne  to  England,  were  extremely  splendid  and  imposing. 
On  his  tomb  in  Westminster  Abbey,  tapers  were  kept  con- 
stantly burning  for  more  than  a  hundred  years. 

Questions. — In  what  wars  did  Henry  V.  engage  ? — With  what 
politic  result? — By  what  acts  did  this  king  obtain  popularity? — 
Describe  the  condition  of  France  during  the  early  part  of  this  cen- 
tury.— What  circumstance  proves  the  violence  of  the  contests  between 
the  Orleanists  and  Burgundians  ? — Describe  the  condition  and  con- 


152  HISTORY   OF    ENGLAND. 

duct  of  the  English  forces  in  France. — How  did  the  army  of  the 
English  king  compare  with  that  of  the  French  ? — Where  did  the 
French  offer  battle  ? — Describe  the  English  king's  appearance  a|id 
address  to  his  army. — Who  won  the  day? — Describe  the  manner 
of  the  burial  of  those  who  had  fallen  ? 

How  was  Henry  received  in  England  ? — Describe  the  extent  of  the 
English  conquests  in  France. — What  did  Heni-y  gain  by  the  treaty 
of  Troyes  ? — What  was  the  position  of  the  royal  family  of  France  at 
this  time? — What  ended  Henry's  successful  career? — What  provision 
did  he  make  for  his  dominions  ? 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

HENRY  VI. 


THE    WAR    IN    FRANCn — JOAN    OP    ARC — MARRIAGE    OF    THE    KING    AND    ITS 
CONSKQUENCES — WARS    OF    THE    ROSES. 

The  Duke  of  Gloucester  was  Protector  of  England  j  the 
Duke  of  Bedford  Regent  in  France ;  and  the  Earl  of 
Warwick  and  Henry  Beaufort,  bishop  of  Winchester, 
were  chief  guardians  of  the  young  xing. 

In  France,  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  notwithstanding  many 

obstacles  and  difficulties,  particularly  that  of  the  jealousy  and 

lukewarmness  of  his  ally  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  maintained 

the  honor  of  the  English  arms.     Determined  to  strike  a  blow 

for  the  possession  of  the  country  south  of  the  Loire,  he  laid 

siea;e  to  Orleans,  a  town  situated  on  that  river,  and 

considered  the  key  to  the  southern  provinces. 

Month  after  month  the  English  lay  before  the  town,  whilst 

within  it  were  renewed  the  horrors  of  the  siege  of  Calais. 

The  final  unsuccessful  appeal  had  been  made  to  the  dauphin 

(who,  on  the  death  of  his  father  in  1422,  had  assumed  the 

title  of  king),  and  the  thought  of  surrender  was  entertained. 

At  this  critical  hour  a  singular  deliverer  was  raised  up  for 

Orleans  and  for  France — a  village  maiden,  named  Joan  of 

Arc.     She  had  been  nurtured  as  a  peasant  girl  in  the  wild 


HENRY    VI.  153 

districts  of  Lorraine,  amid  a  people  of  strong  religious  feelings, 
who  were  firm  believers  in  visions  and  miraculous  appearances. 
She  had  passed  her  childhood  tending  her  father's  flocks,  and 
musing,  amid  the  solitude  of  the  hills,  on  the  lives  and  legends 
of  saints  and  martyrs. 

From  time  to  time  came  news  of  the  horrors  of  the  war 
which  was  ravaging  her  beloved  country.  Occasionally  a 
band  of  soldiers  took  their  merciless  march  through  her 
native  village.  The  miseries  of  war  weighed  upon  her  spirits, 
and  excited  her  imagination.  She  declared  that  she  saw 
heavenly  visions  and  heard  voices  which  bade  her  go  to  the 
aid  of  the  dauphin,  and  the  deliverance  of  France. 

At  first  her  visions  were  disbelieved  and  ridiculed ;  and  it 
was  a  long  time  before  the  desire  of  her  heart  was  granted,  and 
she  was  admitted  to  the  presence  of  the  dauphin.  Suspected 
of  lunacy  by  some,  of  sorcery  by  others,  and  subjected  to  the 
most  trying  examinations,  she  at  length,  with  great  difficulty, 
roused  the  spirit  of  the  French,  and  persuaded  them 
to  send  her,  at  the  head  of  a  small  armed  force,  to 
the  relief  of  Orleans. 

Mounted  on  a  snow-white  horse,  clad  in  bright  armor, 
bearing  a  sword  marked  with  five  crosses,  and  a  banner 
embroidered  with  the  lilies  of  France,  Joan  of  Arc  rode 
towards  the  devoted  town.  The  common  people  flocked  to 
her  standard,  and  the  besieged,  rushing  out  of  the  town, 
attacked  the  English,  amid  cries  of  "  The  Maid  !  the  Maid  is 
come  V  The  attention  of  the  enemy  being  diverted  by  this 
attack,  Joan  ind  her  troops  entered  the  town. 

On  the  8th  of  May,  1429,  the  English  were  obHged  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Orleans.  The  soldiers  would  not  fight  against 
the  Maid,  who,  whether  inspired  by  Heaven,  or  (as  their 
officers  would  have  them  believe)  a  sorceress,  was,  in  either 
case,  no  mortal  enemy. 

This  was  in  JMay.  Before  the  end  of  July,  Joan  had 
accomplished  another  object  for  which  she  believed  herself 
destined — the  crowning  of  the  dauphin  at  Rheims,  the  old 
coronation   city   of  the   kings  of  France.      This  done,   she 


154  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

begged  that  she  might  return  to  her  own  village,  believing 
that  her  heaven-directed  mission  was  fulfilled.  The  French 
king,  hoping  her  presence  might  still  inspire  the  English 
with  terror,  refused  her  request.  The  knights  of  France  grew 
jealous  of  her  fame,  and,  by  degrees,  her  popularity  decHned. 
She  no  longer  heard  voices  from  heaven,  and,  although  she 
fought  with  valor,  many  of  her  enterprises  failed. 

At  lenorth,  whilst  fleeina'  into  the  town  of  Com- 

1430.  . 

peigne,  before  a  large  body  of  English,  Joan  was 
deserted  by  her  companions,  and  she  who  had  been  the 
deliverer  of  France  was  left  in  the  hands  of  her  enemies. 
She  was  taken  to  Rouen.  Accused  of  sorcery  and  magic, 
this  simple-minded,  pious  maiden,  was  brought,  again  and 
again,  before  learned  churchmen,  that  she  might  be  con- 
victed of  the  crime.  Even  in  her  cell,  where  she  was  loaded 
with  irons,  monks  and  confessors  tormented  her,  to  draw  forth 
an  avowal  of  dealings  with  the  evil  one. 

There  was  nothing  in  the  life  or  in  the  words  of  this  heroic 
girl  to  condemn  her,  but  her  enemies  had  determined  on  her 
death ;  and,  after  persecutions  and  trials  of  the  severest  kind, 
Joan  of  Arc  was  burned  as  a  heretic  in  the  market-place  of 
Rouen.  Clasping  a  crucifix,  and  uttering  the  name  of  Jesus, 
she  perished  amid  the  blazing  faggots,  one  of  the  purest  and 

noblest  martyrs  that  the  annals  of  patriotism  have 

ever  produced.  A  monument  now  marks  the  spot,  in 
the  city  of  Rouen,  where  this  cruel  act  of  bigotry  was  done. 

Hith  this  evil  deed  success  seems  to  have  deserted  the 
arms  of  the  English.  In  September,  1435,  the  Duke  of 
Bedford,  who  for  thirteen  years  had  maintained  the  dominion 
in  France  which  Henry  V.  had  won,  died.  One  week  later 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy  deserted  to  the  French  king.  Finally, 
in  1444,  this  long  war  was  interrupted  by  a  truce  made  for 
two  years,  but  which  continued  through  six  years. 

Affairs  in  England  had  not  gone  on  prosperously. 

The  Protector  and  Beaufort,  the  guardian  of  the 
young  king,  quarrelled,  and  their  parties  divided  the  king- 
dom.    Henry  VI.   was  now  twenty-four  years  of  age.     He 


HENRY    VI.  155 

was  of  a  gentle,  retiring  'disposition,  of  weak  intellect,  and 
totally  unfitted  for  the  cares  of  government.  In  the  year 
1445  he  married  Margaret,  princess  of  Anjou. 

A  French  queen  was  always  distasteful  to  the  nation,  and 
there  were  peculiar  objections  to  the  marriage  with  31argaret. 
Hitherto  the  princesses  of  France,  although  they  had  brought 
trouble  enough  into  England,  had  at  least  conferred  upon 
their  royal  husbands  a  goodly  dowry  of  French  provinces. 
But,  by  the  terms  of  the  marriage  treaty  with  Margaret,  her 
father  Ren^e,  Duke  of  Anjou,  was  to  receive  from  the  English 
king  a  large  sum  of  money,  together  with  the  extensive  pro- 
vinces of  Maine  and  Anjou,  which,  with  so  much  cost  of  life 
and  treasure,  had  been  won  by  the  English. 

This  treaty,  so  derogatory  to  the  interests  of  England,  was 
violently  opposed  by  "  the  good  Duke  Humphrey,"  as  the 
people  called  the  Protector  Gloucester.  Margaret  of  Anjou, 
who  was  a  revengeful  woman,  aware  of  this  opposition,  began, 
as  soon  as  she  came  into  England,  a  series  of  persecutions 
against  the  upright  protector,  which  ended  in  his  being 
arrested  on  the  charge  of  high  treason.  Before  the  day  of 
his  trial  arrived,  the  Duke  of  Gloucester  was  found  dead  in 
his  bed.  The  Duke  of  Suffolk,  one  of  Margaret's  principal 
favorites,  succeeded  him  as  Protector,  the  king's  incapacity 
making  such  an  office  necessary. 

In  France,  on  the  death  of  Bedford,  the  Duke  of  York  had 
been  made  Regent.  Margaret  caused  him  to  be  recalled,  and 
one  of  her  own  favorites,  the  Duke  of  Somerset,  appointed  in 
his  place.  During  Somerset's  administration,  the  English 
were  driven  from  France.  With  the  exception  of  the  strong 
town  of  Calais,  every  fragment  of  the  territory  gained  by  so 
many  years  of  conquest,  was  lost  to  them. 

Popular  indignation  now  rose  against  the  queen  and  her 

unworthy  favorite,  Suffolk.    He  was  tried  on  a  charge 

of  high  treason  before  the  House  of  Lords,  and  a 

decree  of  banishment  from  England  and  all  her  dominions 

passed   against   him.      He  embarked  in  a  small  vessel  for 

Calais.       Before    reaching    that   port,    a   large    ship,    "The 


15<3  HISTORY    OF    ExNGLAxNJ). 

Nicholas  of  the  Tower,"  sent  no  doubt  by  Suifolk's  enemies, 
overtook  the  vessel  which  bore  the  banished  favorite.  He 
was  made  a  prisoner,  and,  on  the  third  day  after  his  capture, 
was  beheaded. 

This  was  not  the  only  deed  by  which  indignation  against 
the  government  was  shown  A  formidable  insurrection  of 
the  people,  headed  by  one  Jack  Cade,  broke  out  in  Kent. 
The  rebels,  numbering  fifteen  or  twenty  thousand  men, 
marched  to  London.  When  the  court  sent  to  inquire  why 
the  "  good  men  of  Kent"  had  risen  in  arms,  their  leader 
replied :  "  that  justice  and  prosperity  had  been  put  out  of  the 
land  by  misgovernment,"  and  demanded  the  dismissal  of  the 
obnoxious  favorites,  and  restoration  of  the  Duke  of  York  and 
others  of  the  old  nobility  to  royal  favor.  Many  acts  of  vio- 
lence, similar  to  those  of  Wat  Tyler's  rebellion,  were  com- 
mitted, before  the  insurgents  were  subdued.  At  length  they 
were  induced,  by  false  promises  of  redress  and  pardon,  to 
disperse.  Jack  Cade  being  subsequently  proclaimed  a  traitor, 
fled  towards  the  coast.  He  was  overtaken  by  an  esquire 
named  Alexander  Iden.  A  fight  ensued  between  them,  in 
which  the  rebel  leader  was  slain.  His  head  was  placed  upon 
London  Bridge,  with  the  face  towards  Kent. 

We  have  now  come  to  the  saddest  part  of  the  history  of 
this  century — that  which  records  the  civil  wars  of  the  houses 
of  York  and  Lancaster,  or  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  as  they  are 
often  called,  because  the  Yorkists  chose  as  their  emblem  a 
white,  and  the  Lancastrians  a  red  rose. 

A  large  portion  of  the  nation,  indignant  at  the  govern- 
ment of  Margaret,  were  desirous  that  Richard  of  York,  in 
right  of  his  descent  from  the  second  son  of  Edward  IIL, 
should  be  acknowledged  heir  to  the  throne.     During 

14:54:.  .  ^  .  •  .  ° 

a  short  period  of  nine  months,  whilst  the  king  was 
suiFering  from  an  attack  of  insanity,  this  nobleman  had  been 
appointed  Protector.  On  the  king's  recovery  York  resigned 
the  ofl&ce,  and  immediately  the  queen  and  her  evil  counsellors 
resumed  their  power. 


HENRY  VI.  •     157 

The  party  of  the  Duke  of  York  now  took  up  arms, 
professing  to  do  so  in  defence  of  the  Hberties  of  the 
realm ;  for  as  yet,  York  had  not  openly  claimed  the  crown. 

At  St.  Albans,  the  Yorkists  and  Lancastrians  met  in  hostile 
encounter.  There,  on  the  22d  of  May,  1465,  was  fought  the 
first  battle  in  those  dreadful  wars  which,  for  thirty  years, 
deluged  England  with  blood,  tore  asunder  the  dearest  ties  of 
social  life,  and  nurtured  feelings  of  revenge,  and  a  ferocity  of 
character  which  could  scarcely  find  a  parallel,  even  in  the 
pagan  days  of  England's  history. 

It  is  needless  to  mention  all  the  details  of  these  times  of 
misery. 

At  the  end  of  five  years  from  the  battle  of  St. 
Albans,  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  openly  claimed  the 
throne.  A  bloody  encounter  took  place  at  Wakefield,  in 
Yorkshire,  in  which  the  Lancastrians  gained  the  victory, 
their  formidable  enemy  being  killed  on  the  field  of  battle. 
Margaret  displayed  her  revengeful  spirit,  by  causing  the 
head  of  her  slain  foe  to  be  put  upon  the  gates  of  York, 
surmounted  by  a  paper  crown,  in  ridicule  of  his  claim  to  the 
throne. 

The  young  Duke  of  Rutland,  a  beautiful  boy  of  thirteen,  a 
son  of  the  Duke  of  York,  fled  from  the  battle-field.  He  was 
overtaken  by  Lord  Clifi'ord,  who,  stabbing  him  to  the  heart, 
despite  his  piteous  cries  for  mercy,  vowed  he  would  do  thus 
to  all  of  the  house  of  York,  in  revenge  for  the  death  of  his 
father,  slain  at  St.  Albans.  Then,  with  savage  cruelty,  Clif- 
ford sent  a  messenger  to  describe  to  the  mother  of  the  mur- 
dered boy,  all  that  had  happened. 

Edward,  the  eldest  son  of  Richard  of  York,  now  inherited 

his  father's  claim  to  the  throne.     At  IMortimer's  Cross,  near 

Hereford,  on  the  1st  February,  he  gained  a  decisive 

victory  over  the  Lancastrians.     Thence,  toward  the 

close  of  the  month,  he  marched  to  London,  where  he  was 

received  with  great  enthusiasm  by  the  people;  and  on  the 

4th  of  March,  1461,  was  proclaimed  king  by  the  acclamations 

14 


158      •  HISTORY   OF    ENGLAND. 

of  the  populace,  and  the  consent  of  a  great  council  of  the  lords 
of  the  realm. 

Questions.— Name  those  who  were  at  the  heW  of  the  government 
during  the  king's  minority.— What  object  did  Bedford  desire  to 
accomplish  ?— What  town  did  he  besiege  ?— Describe  the  condition 

of  the  besieged. — Relate  the  early  history  of  Joan  of  Arc. Recount 

her  patriotic  exertions. — Describe  her  subsequent  misfortunes  and 
death. 

What  misfortunes  befell  the  English  after  the  death  of  Joan  of 
Arc? — In  what  year  was  a  truce  agreed  upon  between  England  and 
France? — What  was  the  condition  of  affairs  in  England  at  this 
time  ?^Mention  the  age  and  describe  the  disposition  of  the  king. — 
Whom  did  he  marry  ? — What  were  the  terms  of  the  marriage-treaty 
with  Margaret  of  Anjou  ? — Who  opposed  this  treaty  ? — With  what 
result  ? — Who  succeeded  Gloucester  as  Protector  ? — Whom  did  Mar- 
garet cause  to  be  appointed  Regent  in  France  ? — What  was  the  fate 
of  the  Duke  of  Suffolk  ? — Give  an  account  of  Cade's  insurrection. 

Whom  did  the  nation  regard  as  the  heir  to  the  throne? — Into  what 
were  the  partisans  of  the  Duke  of  York  led,  by  the  misgovernment 
of  the  queen? — When  and  where  did  the  scene  of  civil  strife  open? — 
In  what  disastrous  effects  did  these  wars  result? — When  did  the 
Duke  of  York  openly  claim  the  throne  ? — What  was  the  result  of  the 
battle  of  Wakefield? — How  did  Margaret  show  her  revengeful  spirit? 
— Relate  the  fate  of  the  young  Duke  of  Rutland? — AVho  succeeded  to 
the  inheritance  of  the  Duke  of  York? — What  victory  secured  him  the 
throne  ? — When  was  he  proclaimed  king  ? 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

EDWARD   IV. 

BATTLE  OF  TOWTON — KING's    MARRIAGE — ITS  CONSEQUENCES — TRIUMPH  OF 
LANCASTRIANS — THEIR  PINAL  OVERTHROW — THE  KING'S  REVENGE. 

One  of  the  bloodiest  battles  in  English  history  marked  the 
accession  of  Edward  IV.     It  was  fou2:ht  at  Towton, 

1461.     .  .  .  ,  . 

in  Yorkshire.     It  began  at  nine  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing, in  the  midst  of  a  terrible  snow-storm,  and  lasted  for  six 


EDWARD    IV.  159 

hours.  The  Yorkists  gained  a  complete  victory,  but  the 
slaughter  was  immense,  and  the  fearful  number  of  thirty-eight 
thousand  dead  are  s^iid  to  have  been  left  upon  the  battle-field. 
Margaret,  with  her  son  and  husband,  fled  to  Scotland.  Thence 
she  went  to  France,  and  employed  the  next  nine  years  in 
untiring  efforts  for  the  recovery  of  her  throne.  The  unfortu- 
nate and  '^  gentle-hearted"  King  Henry  wandered  a  fugitive 
in  his  own  kingdom,  until  some  years  later,  when  he 
*.  was  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  and  by 
them  lodged  in  the  Tower. 

King  Edward,  at  his  coronation,  which  took  place  at  West- 
minster, after  the  battle  of  Towton,  conferred  the  titles  and 
honors  of  Duke  of  Clarence  and  Duke  of  Gloucester  on  his 
two  brothers,  George  and  Richard.  As  Henry  lY.,  the  first 
monarch  of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  had  been  raised  to  the 
throne  by  the  influence  of  a  powerful  family,  so  Edward  lY., 
the  first  king  of  the  house  of  York,  owed  his  ascendancy  to 
the  great  family  of  the  Nevils.  Guy,  Earl  of  Warwick,  the 
eldest  brother  of  this  "house,  was  surnamed  ''  king-maker," 
because  of  the  great  weight  which  his  influence  gave  to  the 
claimant  whose  cause  he  espoused,  in  these  contests  for  the 
crown. 

Like  his  predecessor  of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  Edward  lY. 
did  that  which  was  highly  displeasing  to  those  who  had  secured 
him  the  throne.  On  the  1st  of  May,  1464,  without  the  con- 
sent or  knowledge  of  his  great  lords,  he  married  Lady  Eliza- 
beth Woodville,  the  widow  of  Sir  John  Grey.  Surrounding 
himself  by  his  wife's  relations,  the  king  at  length  presented 
her  to  the  council  as  his  queen,  and,  about  a  year  after  the 
marriage,  her  coronation  took  place,  celebrated  by  tournaments 
and  pageants  of  great  magnificence. 

Edward  bestowed,  with  an  unsparing  hand,  offices  and 
honors  on  the  new  queen's  family.  Her  father  was  made 
Earl  Rivers,  and  the  Greys  and  the  Woodvilles  usurped  every 
place  of  honor  and  profit  in  the  realm.  This  gave  great 
offence  to  the  whole  nation,  but  particularly  to  the  proud 
family  of  the  Nevils. 


160  HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND. 

The  Duke  of  Clarence,  the  next  brother  to  Edward,  married 
Isabella,  eldest  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick.  Disgusted 
by  the  conduct  of  Edward,  Clarence  joined  his  father-in-law, 
and  both  went  over  to  France,  to  plot  the  dethronement  of  one 
whom  they  had  made  king. 

The  high  spirit  of  Margaret  of  Anjou  was  yet  unbroken, 
and  to  regain  the  crown,  she  was  willing  to  make  alliance  with 
her  greatest  enemy.  Warwick  and  the  banished  queen  met  at 
the  castle  of  Amboise.  The  king-maker  promised  to  restore 
the  house  of  Lancaster.  Margaret  engaged  to  marry 
her  young  son  Edward  to  Anne  Nevil,  Warwick's 
second  daughter,  thus  securing  to  his  family,  should  their 
cause  triumph,  the  succession  to  the  throne. 

In  September,  1470,  Warwick  landed  in  England.  King 
Edward,  taken  by  surprise,  had  no  time  to  gather  his  forces 
for  battle.  To  avoid  being  made  prisoner,  he  embarked 
hastily  in  a  Dutch  vessel,  and,  after  great  peril,  escaped  to 
Holland. 

Warwick  entered  London  in  triumph.  Proceeding  to  the 
Tower,  he  released  the  captive  Henry,  and  saluted  as  king, 
him  who,  a  few  years  previous,  he  had  conducted  to. that 
gloomy  prison,  crying  before  him  as  he  went:  "Behold  the 
traitor  I"  The  Yorkists  were  filled  with  terror.  Queen  Eliza- 
beth Woodville  fled  to  the  sanctuary  at  Westminster,  where, 
shortly  after,  she  gave  birth  to  her  eldest  son.  The  birth  of 
this  young  prince  in  the  sanctuary  of  Westminster,  amid  cir- 
cumstances of  terror  and  distress,  was  a  fitting  prelude  to  the 
sad  story  of  his  life,  and  his  early  death  of  horror  and  mystery 
in  the  Tower  of  London. 

The  triumph  of  the  Lancastrians  was  of  short  duration. 
Edward  raised  an  army  of  twelve  hundred  men,  and, 
in  less  than  six  months,  landed  in  England,  for  the 
recovery  of  his  crown.  He  disembarked  at  Ravenspur,  in 
Yorkshire,  the  very  port  at  which  Henry  Bolingbroke  had 
landed,  when  he  came  to  dethrone  his  cousin,  Richard  II. 
Marching  southward,  he  met,  near  Coventry,  the  Earl  of 
Warwick,  prepared  to  give  him  battle. 


EDWARD   IV.  161 

Before  the  conflict  began,  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  making 
his  men  put  the  white  rose  of  York  on  their  hehnets,  deserted 
the  Lancastrian  cause,  and  went  over  to  the  army  of  his 
brother.  Owing  to  this  desertion,  Warwick  was  obhged  to 
avoid  an  engagement.  Edward  continued  his  march  south- 
ward, and  was  received  with  great  joy  in  London.  The  two 
armies  met  late  on  Easter  even,  at  Barnet,  about  twelve  miles 
from  the  capital,  where  a  severe  battle  was  fought  on  Easier 
Sunday. 

The  Duke  of  Clarence,  who,  it  will  be  remembered,  had 
married  a  daughter  of  Warwick,  tried  to  make  peace  between 
his  brother  and  father-in-law.  To  his  herald,  the  haughty 
king-maker  replied  :  "Go  tell  your  master,  that  Warwick, 
true  to  his  oath,  is  a  better  man  than  false,  perjured  Clarence, 
and  will  settle  the  question  by  the  sword  to  which  he  has 
appealed." 

The  battle  of  Barnet  was  won  by  the  Yorkists.  The  great 
Earl  of  Warwick  was  slain  upon  the  field,  and  Edward  lY. 
recovered  the  throne.  On  the  very  day  of  the  battle,  Marga- 
ret of  Anjou,  with  her  son  and  a  body  of  French  troops, 
landed  in  England.  Near  Tewkesbury,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Severn,  she  was  met  and  defeated  by  King  Edward's  army. 
She  and  her  son  were  taken  prisoners  When  the  young 
prince,  a  boy  of  eighteen,  was  carried  into  King  Edward's 
presence,  the  monarch  asked  what  brought  him  to  England. 
"  My  father's  crown  and  my  own  inheritance !"  replied  the 
undaunted  youth.  The  ungenerous  king  struck  him  with  his 
gauntlet,  and,  taking  this  as  a  signal  for  further  cruelty,  others 
fell  upon  the  unhappy  boy,  and  put  him  to  death  with  their 
swords. 

Margaret  of  Anjou  lived  eleven  years  longer.  Part  of  the 
time  she  was  a  prisoner  in  England.  Being  ransomed  by  the 
French  king,  the  last  six  years  of  her  existence  were  passed 
in  obscurity  in  France.  The  life  of  her  unhappy  husband 
ended  soon  after  the  restoration  of  Edward  lY.  to  his  throne. 
He  was  found  dead  in  the  Tower. 

In  1475,  Edward,  as  an  ally  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and 
14*  L 


162  HISTORY   OF    ENGLAND. 

also  as  a  claimant  of  the  French  throne,  entered  France  with 
a  large  army.  No  battles  were  fought,  nor  conquests  gained, 
for  the  artful  King  Louis  XL  contrived  to  bribe  Edward  into 
a  disgraceful  peace.  The  English  army  then  recrossed  the 
Channel,  and  during  the  remainder  of  this  reign,  with  the 
exception  of  an  unimportant  campaign  in  Scotland,  no  wars 
occurred. 

Edward's  revengeful  temper  had  never  fully  forgiven  his 

brother  Clarence   the   alliance  with  the  Nevils.      He   now 

accused  him  of  witchcraft,  a  grave  charge  in  those  days,  and 

of  conspiring  to  obtain  the  throne.     Clarence  was  cast  into 

the  Tower,  where,  in  little  more  than  a  month,  he 

1478.  '  '  '      . 

died.  The  popular  belief  and  rumor  was,  that  his 
brother,  Richard  of  Gloucester,  had  caused  him  to  be  drowned 
in  a  butt  of  Malmsey  wine. 

Elizabeth  of  York,  the  eldest  daughter  of  King  Edward, 
had  long  been  affianced  to  Charles,  the  dauphin  of  France. 
In  1482,  the  crafty  Louis  XL,  finding  a  more  advantageous 
alliance  for  his  son,  in  the  wealthy  heiress  of  Burgundy, 
broke  his  treaty  with  Edward  on  this  point.  The  English 
king,  greatly  incensed,  prepared  for  war,  but  before  his 
arrangements  were  completed,  he  died,  the  victim  of  a  life 
of  vicious  excesses. 

Questions. — Describe  the  battle  of  Towton. — Relate  the  subse- 
quent fate  of  Margaret. — What  befell  King  Henry  VI.  ? — To  whom 
had  Edward  been  indebted  for  his  elevation  to  the  throne  ? — What 
surname  did  the  Earl  of  Warwick  receive  ? — Why  did  he  receive 
it? — Whom  did  the  king  marry? — By  what  acts  did  he  incur  the 
enmity  of  the  house  of  Warwick  ? — By  whom  was  a  conspiracy  en- 
tered into  against  the  king? — Mention  the  engagements  made  be- 
tween Margaret  of  Anjou  and  Warwick. 

When  did  Warwick  invade  England  ? — With  what  result  ? — De- 
scribe his  conduct  towards  the  imprisoned  Henry  VT. — What  dis- 
turbed the  triumph  of  the  Lancastrians  in  1471  ? — What  act  of 
treachery  did  the  Duke  of  Clarence  commit? — What  effect  did  it 
produce? — What  was  the  consequence  of  this  desertion  ? — When  and 
where  did  the  two  armies  meet  in  conflict  ? — What  was  the  result 
of  the  battle  of  Barnet? — What  was  the  .result  of  Margaret's  attempt 


EDWARD   V.    AND  RICHARD   III.  163 

to  regain  the  crown? — Describe  the  interview  between  the  young 
prince,  Margaret's  son,  and  King  Edward. — State  what  followed? — 
What  was  the  subsequent  history  of  Margaret  of  Anjou? 

On  what  grounds  did  Edward  declare  war  with  France  ? — What 
was  the  conduct  of  this  war  ? — Was  Edward  IV. 's  a  warlike  reign? — 
Relate  Edward's  conduct  towards  his  brother  Clarence. — What  insult 
had  the  king  of  France  offered  to  the  English  monarch? — What 
prevented  Edward  from  making  war  on  France  ? 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

EDWARD  V.   AND  RICHARD   III. 

KICHARD'S    machinations — THE    PRINCES    IN    THE    TOWER — RICHARD    BB- 
COMES  KING — A  RIVAL  CLAIMANT — BOSWORTH  FIELD, 

The  story  of  the  next  reign  (if  reign  it  can  be  called)  is 
as  sad  as  it  is  brief.  The  young  Edward,  eldest  son 
of  Edward  IV.,  a  gentle,  timid  boy  of  thirteen,  was 
the  heir  to  the  throne.  He  was  too  young  himself  to  resist 
the  power  of  his  ambitious  and  unscrupulous  uncle,  Richard, 
Duke  of  Gloucester,  and  the  prince's  only  friends  were  those 
of  his  mother,  the  Woodvilles  and  the  Greys,  who  were 
unpopular  with  the  nation. 

Richard  soon  disposed  of  these.  Earl  Rivers  and  Lord 
Grey,  the  guardians  of  the  young  prince,  were  treacherously 
arrested,  and,  with  others,  beheaded  at  Pontefract  Castle. 
The  Earl  Rivers  was  one  of  the  most  accomplished  men  of 
his  age,  and  the  patron  of  Caxton  the  first  English  printer. 

Not  content  with  destroying  the  queen's  relations,  Richard 
seized  and  put  to  death  Lord  Hastings,  one  of  the  most  loyal 
servants  of  the  young  prince ;  and,  in  fact,  did  not  scruple  to 
remove  all  whom  he  supposed  would  bar  his  usurpation  of 
the  throne.  When  all  these  measures  had  been  taken,  he 
declared  that,  King  Edward  IV.  having  been  married  to 
another  lady  before  his  union  with  Elizabeth  Woodville,  the 


164  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

children  of  the  last  marriage  were  not  the  lawful  heirs  to  the 
throne. 

Ey  these  arts  he  prevailed,  and  the  people  offered  him  the 
crown.  At  first  he  affected  to  refuse  it,  pretending  affection 
for  his  brother's  children — those  very  princes  whom  he  had 
just  declared  incapable  of  reigning.  His  pretended  scruples, 
however,  were  soon  laid  aside,  and  he  was  crowned  king,  with 
the  title  of  Richard  III.  The  young  Prince  Edward  and  his 
brother,  meanwhile,  had  been  imprisoned. 

A  mysterious  horror  surrounds  the  death  scene  of  many  a 
king  and  scion  of  England's  royal  race ;  but  none  is  darker 
than  that  which  shrouds  the  fate  of  these  young  princes  in 
London  Tower.  That  they  were  murdered  by  their  wicked 
uncle,  can  scarcely  be  doubted,  but  by  what  means  the  deed 
of  darkness  was  accomplished,  none  can  know  with  certainty. 
The  most  generally  received  opinion  is,  that  they  were  smo- 
thered to  death  by  two  assassins,  acting  under  the  order  of 
the  unscrupulous  Eichard. 

When  the  opponents  of  Eichard  of  Gloucester  found  that 
the  two  princes  had  perished,  they  turned  their  hopes 
to  Henry  Tudor,  Earl  of  Eichmond,  a  descendant  of 
the  house  of  Lancaster. 

From  Brittany,  where,  for  many  years,  he  had  been  living 
in  exile,  Eichmond  now  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
invade  England.  Not  long  after  his  return  to  France,  a 
treacherous  minister  of  the  Duke  of  Brittany  was  about  to 
betray  him  into  the  hands  of  Eichard  III.,  but  he  saved 
himself  by  a  timely  flight  to  the  court  of  the  French  king. 

On  the  7th  August,  1485,  Eichmond  again  landed  in  Eng- 
land. He  had  only  a  small  body  of  men,  but  he  was  well 
aware  that  his  father-in-law  (Lord  Stanley)  with  other  power- 
ful relations,  were  ready  to  espouse  his  cause,  and  that  the 
nation  generally  were  disaffected  toward  Eichard. 

Suspecting  the  fidelity  of  Lord  Stanley,  Eichard  seized  that 
nobleman's  son  as  a  hostage,  and  trusting  in  superior  numbers, 
prepared  to  encounter  Eichmond.  At  Bosworth,  near  Lei- 
cester, the  two  armies  met,  and  there  fought  the  last  battle  of 


HENRY    VII.  1G5 

the  Wars  of  the  Roses.  Early  in  the  conflict,  Lord  Stanley, 
with  ten  thousand  men,  went  over  to  the  army  of  his  step-son; 
others  followed  his  example.  Deserted  on  every  hand,  Richard 
fought  with  the  madness  of  desperation ;  but,  borne 
down  by,  numbers,  he  fell,  covered  with  wounds,  as 
he  was  seeking  a  personal  encounter  with  his  rival.  Lord 
Stanley  placed  the  blood-soiled,  battered  crown  (which  had 
fallen  from  Richard)  upon  the  Earl  of  Richmond's  brow,  and 
saluted  him  king,  upon  the  field  of  victory. 

Questions. — With  what  difficulties  had  the  young  Edward  V.  to 
contend  ? — How  did  Richard  dispose  of  the  guardians  of  young 
Edward  ? — What  is  said  of  Earl  Rivers  ? — What  was  done  with  the 
young  princes  ? — What  is  said  of  their  fate  ? 

Whom  did  the  opponents  of  Richard  desire  to  make  king  ? — What 
was  the  result  of  his  first  invasion  of  England? — How  did  he  escape 
betrayal  into  Richard's  hands  ? — What  encouraged  his  second  inva- 
sion of  England  ? — Where  was  the  last  battle  of  the  Wars  of  the 
Roses  fought  ? — Who  deserted  to  the  Duke  of  Richmond  ? — What 
was  the  result  of  this  encounter  ? 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

HENRY  VII. 

ENTRY   INTO    LONDON — TREATMENT    OP    THE    HOUSE  OF  YORK — IMPOSTORS — 
SIMNEL — WARBECK — AVARICE  OF  THE  KING — NEW  WORLD  DISCOVERED. 

The  first  act  of  Henry  VII.,  after  the  battle  of  Bosworth, 
showed,  in  some  degree,  the .  character  of  the  king.  He 
entered  the  city  of  London,  not  mounted  on  a  charger,  as 
had  been  the  wont  of  every  sovereign  of  the  Plantagenet  race, 
but  shut  up  in  a  close  and  clumsy  carriage.  Proceeding  to 
St.  Paul's,  he  off"ered  on  the  high  altar  three  standards :  one, 
an  image  of  St.  George,  the  patron  saint  of  England;  the 
second  a  red  dragon,  and  the  third  a  dun  cow.  When  the 
Te  Deum  had  been  sung,  the  king  repaired  to  the  bishop's 


166  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

palace,  whilst  the  people  engaged  in  plays  and  pastimes,  inter- 
spersed with  religious  pageants 

Henry  VII.  hated  the  house  of  York,  but,  finding  that  he 
might  more  securely  hold  his  throne  by  a  union  with  that 
house,  he  married  Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of  Edward 
lY.  By  this  marriage  the  wars  of  York  and  Lan- 
caster were  more  effectually  ended  thau  they  could  have  been 
by  the  most  successful  battle. 

The  young  Earl  of  Warwick,  a  nephew  of  the  late  king, 
was  thrown  into  the  Tower.  He  was  a  son  of  the  unfortunate 
Duke  of  Clarence,  and  Henry  feared  lest  the  claim  of  this 
Yorkist  prince  should  imperil  the  security  of  his  own  crown. 

Notwithstjinding  this  precaution,  his  reign  was  disturbed  by 
pretenders  to  the  throne.  The  people  of  Ireland,  who  had 
been  well  governed  by  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  and  by  his  son, 
the  Duke  of  Clarence,  were  warmly  attached  to  this  house. 
When,  therefore,  a  young  and  noble-looking  boy  landed  in 
Ireland,  claimin";  to  be  Earl  of  Warwick,  the  eldest 

1487.  JO  5 

son  of  the  murdered  Clarence,  the  warm-hearted 
Irish  readily  believed  the  story  he  told  of  his  escape  from  the 
Tower,  and  gathered  to  his  standard.  Having  no  crown,  a 
golden  diadem,  taken  from  a  statue  of  the  Virgin,'  was  placed 
upon  his  brow  in  the  Cathedral  Church  of  Dublin,  and  he  was 
saluted  king,  by  the  title  of  Edward  VL 

Meanwhile  the  English  monarch  took  measures  to  defeat 
the  claims  of  this  impostor,  who  was  in  reality  a  baker's  boy, 
named  Lambert  Simnel.  He  brought  the  real  Earl  of  War- 
wick from  the  Tower,  and  paraded  him  through  the  streets 
of  London.  He  then  marched  against  Simnel,  whom  he  met 
and  totally  routed  at  a  little  village  in  Y^orkshire,  not  far  from 
Newark.  Lambert  was  taken  prisoner,  and  Henry,  to  show 
his  contempt  for  the  enemy  whom  he  had  so  easily  defeated, 
spared  his  life,  and  made  him  a  scullion  in  the  royal  kitchens. 
After  this  victory  the  king  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  shrine 
of  "  Our  Lady  at  Walsingham,''  and  offered  thereupon  his 
victorious  banner. 

Scarcely  six  years  had  passed  away  before  the  throne  of 


HENRY    VII.  iG7 

Henry  Tudor  was  threatened  by  another  and  a  more  formi- 
dable impostor.  This  was  Perkin  Warbeck,  the  son 
of  a  merchant  of  Tournay.  He  feigned  to  be  Richard, 
Duke  of  York,  the  younger  of  the  two  brothers  whom  the 
cruelty  of  Richard  III.  had  put  to  a  mysterious  death  in  the 
Tower.  Pretending  to  have  escaped'  from  that  but  too  safe 
prison-house,  he  preseuted  himself  to  Margaret,  Duchess  of 
Burgundy,  a  sister  of  Edward  IV.  She  either  believed,  or 
was  induced  by  her  hatred  of  the  house  of  Tudor,  to  aifect 
to  believe,  that  the  young  fugitive  was  indeed  her  nephew. 
She  received  him  with  every  token  of  affection,  bestowed  on 
him  the  appellation  of  "  the  White  Rose  of  England,"  and 
gave  money  and  men  to  aid  him  in  getting  the  English 
throne. 

Joined  by  a  few  discontented  exiles,  he  landed  in  Kent. 

None  gathered  to  his  standard,  and  a  small  body  of 

the  country  people  were  sufficient  to  drive  the  invader 

back  to  Flanders.     Not  yet  despairing  of  success,  Warbeck, 

who  is  described  as  young,  beautiful,  and  fascinating,  went  to 

Scotland.     He  was  there  welcomed  with  great  cordiality  by 

James  IV.,  the   king  of  that  country,  who  was  at 

enmity  with   the    English.     The   accomplished   and 

graceful  Warbeck  was  entertained  with  feast  and  tournament. 

He  was  greeted  as  the  true  White  Rose  of  England,  and 

obtained  in  marriage  the  Lady  Catherine  Gordon,  daughter 

of  the  Earl  of  Huntley,  and  one  of  the  most  beautiful  women 

in  the  land. 

Warbeck,  with  his  ally,  the  king  of  Scotland,  and  troops 
which  the  Duchess  of  Burgundy  had  contrived  to  send  over, 
crossed  the  border.  Henry  sent  against  him  a  large  force, 
under  the  Earl  of  Surrey.  The  pretender  was  driven  back, 
and  James  IV.  was  prevailed  upon  to  enter  into  a  treaty  with 
the  Eno-lish  kinc:.     Warbeck  left  Scotland.     Encou- 

1497.  .  . 

raged  by  an  insurrection  against  Henry,  among  the 
people  of  Cornwall,  he  landed  in  that  county,  and  marched 
as  far  as  Taunton,  in  Somersetshire.  Here  he  was  met  by  the 
king's  forces,  defeated   and  obliged  to  fly  to  the  sanctuary  at 


108  HISTORY    OF    ENCiLAM). 

Beaulieu.  Henry  would  not  openly  Ibice  this  place  of  sacred 
refuge,  but  he  induced  Warbeck,  by  false  promises,  to  put 
himself  into  the  royal  hands.  The  unfortunate  impostor, 
though  at  first  treated  with  some  show  of  lenity,  was  subse- 
quently sent  to  the  Tower. 

There  he  found  a  friend  in  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  his  fellow 
prisoner.  By  the  singular  fascination  of  bis  manners,  War- 
beck  won  the  hearts  of  his  keepers,  and  a  rumor  got  abroad 
of  a  plot  contrived  against  the  king  by  the  captives  in  the 
Tower.  Tried  on  these  charges,  both  Warbeck  and  the 
unhappy  earl  were  found  guilty  and  sentenced  to  death.  The 
feelings  of  the  nation  were  greatly  excited  by  the  execution 
of  this  sentence  on  the  Earl  of  W^arwick.  He  had  been  a  pri- 
soner from  childhood,  and  was  now,  they  believed,  put  to  death 
for  a  treason  of  which  he  was  not  guilty. 

One  of  Henry  VII. 's  vices  was  avarice.  By  confiscation 
and  extortion,  in  which  last  he  employed  two  noted  lawyers, 
Empson  and  Dudley,  he  filled  his  coffers  with  gold.  The  love 
of  money  made  him  forget  the  gratitude  he  owed  to  those  who 
had  gained  him  his  cfDwn.  Sir  William  Stanley  had  said : 
"  that  if  he  were  sure  that  Perkin  Warbeck  was  the  son  of 
Edward  IV.,  he  would  never  fight  against  him."  These  were 
but  words,  and  uttered  by  the  brother  of  the  Lord 
Stanley  whose  desertion  had,  in  great  measure,  won 
the  field  of  Bosworth,  and  who,  on  that  field,  had  placed  the 
crown  on  Henry's  brow.  Sir  William  Stanley  had  himself, 
moreover,  in  that  same  battle,  saved  Henry  Tudor's  life,  but 
— he  was  the  richest  noble  in  the  land,  and  so  he  perished  as 
a  traitor  on  the  scaffold,  and  the  king  took  all  his  wealth. 

About  the  time  of  Warbeck's  rebellion  there  reached  Eng- 
land wondrous  tales  of  a  new  world  discovered  in  the  western 
seas.  The  maritime  spirit  of  the  country  was  aroused,  and 
merchants  and  navigators  longed  to  share  the  fame  and  the 
profit  of  the  new  discoveries.  In  the  year  1496,  Henry  VII. 
granted  a  patent  to  a  Venetian  merchant  of  Bristol,  named 
John  Cabot,  and  to  his  three  sons,  to  go  on  a  voyage  of  dis- 
covery.     John   Cabot  and  his   son    Sebastian   set  sail   from 


HENRY   VII.  169 

England  in  May,  1497,  and  discovered  land,  which  they 
called  Prima  Vista,  or  First  Seen.  It  was  probably  either 
the  coast  of  Labrador,  or  the  island  which  still  bears  the 
name  of  Newfoundland. 

They  were  the  first  of  that  noble  race  of  English  mariners, 
the  Hawkins,  Frobishers,  Drakes,  Gilberts,  and  llaleighs, 
who,  in  the  century  about  to  open,  began  a  glorious  career 
of  maritime  adventure,  and  founded,  in  the  New  World,  a 
nation  rivaUing  in  greatness  the  ancestry  from  which  they 
sprang. 

During  the  winter  of  1501-2  two  important  marriages  took 
place  in  the  family  of  the  monarch.  The  one  was  that  of  his 
eldest  son,  Arthur,  to  Katherine  of  Arragon,  a  princess  of 
Spain.  The  other  was  that  of  Henry's  eldest  daughter, 
Margaret,  to  King  James  IV.  of  Scotland.  From  the  last- 
named  union  sprang  the  claim  of  the  Stuarts  to  the  crown  of 
England — a  claim  which,  in  later  times,  as  we  shall  see, 
proved  fatal  to  its  possessors. 

The  marriage  of  Prince  x\rthur  took  place  when  the  bride- 
groom was  little  more  than  fifteen  years  of  age.  It  was  cele- 
brated in  the  Cathedral  Church  of  St.  Paul's,  and  the  king 
on  this  occasion  spent  large  sums  in  providing  feasts,  tourna- 
ments, and  other  entertainments  for  his  subjects.  The  boy 
lived  only  five  months  after  the  wedding  which  had  been 
celebrated  with  so  much  magnificence.  He  died  at  Ludlow 
Castle,  whither  he  had  been  sent  to  keep  his  court  as  Prince 
of  Wales.  The  miser-king,  unwilling  to  lose  the  dowry  of  the 
princess,  afiianced  the  young  widow  to  his  second  son,  Henry. 
The  marriage  did  not  take  place  until  five  years  later,  a  few 
weeks  after  the  young  prince's  accession  to  the  throne. 

On  the  21st  of  April,  1509,  the  king  died,  and  was  buried 
in  the  beautiful  chapel  in  Westminster  Abbey  still  called  by 
his  name.  «^ 

Questions. — Describe  Henry  VII.'s  entry  into  London. — Mention 
his  oiFerings  at  St.  Paul's. — Whom  did  he  marry  ? — What  was  the 
effect  of  this  union  ? — In  what  way  did  Henry  manifest  his  jealousy 
51 


170  HISTUKY    OF    KN GLAND. 

of  the  house  of  York? — Relate  the  history  of  Lambert  Simnel's 
imposture. — In  what  did  it  result? — Describe  the  pretensions  and 
early  success  of  Perkin  Warbeck.— What  misfortunes  followed  his 
second  invasion  of  England. — Who  suffered  with  Warbeck? 

What  two  lawyers  aided  Henry  in  his  avaricious  designs  ? — What 
effect  had  the  love  of  money  upon  the  king's  character? — Mention 
the  illustration  of  this  given  in  Henry's  treatment  of  Sir  William 
Stanley. — What  rumor  reached  England  about  the  year  1495? — How 
did  Henry  manifest  his  interest  in  the  new  discoveries  ? — What  was 
the  result  of  Cabot's  first  voyage  ? — When  did  King  Henry  die  ? — 
Where  was  he  buried  ? 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

CONDITION  OP  ENGLAND  DURING  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. 

RELIGION  —  LEARNING  —  PRINTING — AGRICULTURE — ARCHITECTURE  —  DO- 
MESTIC COMFORT — GREAT  MERCHANTS  —  MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS  —  CON- 
DITION   OF    THE    PEOPLE. 

During  the  early  part  of  this  century  the  church  was  very 
busy  in  persecuting  the  followers  of  Wickliffe,  or  Lollards,  as 
they  were  frequently  called.  The  fires  which  in  anothei- 
century  burned  so  fiercely  for  the  Reformers  of  the  English 
Church,  were  first  kindled  at  Smithfield,  in  the  year  1401, 
and  William  Sautre,  priest  of  St.  Osyth's,  in  London,  has  the 
honor  of  being  the  first  Protestant  martyr  of  England.  Ho 
was  summoned  before  the  primate  and  six  other  bishops, 
in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  there  to  undergo  the  sentence  of 
degradation  from  the  ministry  of  the  church,  prior  to  his 
being  committed  to  the  stake.  The  ceremonial  was  one  cal- 
culated to  fill  the  minds  of  the  beholders  with  awe.  The 
prelates  were  arrayed  in  the  full  splendor  of  their  pontifical 
robes  j  their  victim  stood  before  them  in  his  priestly  dress, 
holding  in  his  hands  the  chalice  and  paten  used  in  the 
administration  of  the  Eucharist.  The  archbishop,  solemnly 
pronouncing  against  the  rector  of  St.  Osyth's  the  deposition 


ENGLAND   DURING    THE   FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.         171 

from  the  priesthood,  took  out  of  his  hands  the  tokens  of  his 
office,  and  removed  the  scarlet  robe  worn  by  him  as  a  member 
of  that  order.  To  signify  his  degradation  from  the  rank  of 
deacon,  a  volume  of  the  New  Testament  was  taken  out  of  his 
hands,  and  the  stole  or  tippet  removed  from  his  shoulders. 
Then  followed  the  laying  aside  of  the  surplice  and  scarf,  to 
signify  that  he  had  lost  the  degree  of  sub-deacon.  In  like 
manner  he  was  deposed  from  the  Inferior  dignities  of  the 
church,  down  to  that  of  sexton,  which  last  was  indicated  by 
taking  from  him  the  surplice  of  that  office,  and  the  key  of  the 
church  door.  Finally,  the  tonsure  was  effiiced,  and  a  layman's 
cap  put  upon  his  head.  When  this  impressive  ceremony  was 
concluded,  the  deposed  priest  of  St.  Osyth's  was  delivered 
into  the  hands  of  the  secular  power,  and  condemned  to  the 
stake. 

One  of  the  most  illustrious  victims  of  the  religious  perse- 
cution of  these  days  was  (Sir  John  Oldcastle)  Lord  Cobham. 
This  nobleman,  when  brought  to  trial,  presented  to  his  judges 
a  paper  containing  a  confession  of  his  faith.  It  closes  with 
these  words,  which  are  given  not  only  as  illustrating  the 
doctrines  for  which  he  was  condemned,  but  also  as  a  specimen 
of  the  style  of  English  written  in  the  early  part  of  this 
century : — 

"  I  suppose  this  fully,  that  every  man  in  this  erthe  is  a 
pilgrime  towarde  blyss,  or  toward  payne ;  and  that  he  that 
knoweth  not,  ne  wole  not  knowe,  ne  kepe  the  holy  com- 
mandements  of  God  in  his  ly vying  here,  al  be  it,  that  he  goo 
on  pylgrimage  to  all  the  world,  an  he  dy  so,  ho  shi-.H  1)e 
dampned ;  and  he  that  knowytht  he  holy  comman demon  tys  of 
Grod,  and  kepeth  hem  hys  end,  he  shall  be  saved,  tho'  he 
nevir  in  hys  lyve  go  on  pilgrymage,  as  men  use  now,  to  Can- 
terbury or  to  Rome  or  to  any  othir  place." 

Lord  Cobham  was  a  friend  of  Henry  V.,  and  that  monarch 
endeavored  to  save  him,  by  inducing  him  to  give  up  his 
•opinions.  The  nobleman,  however,  resisted  all  his  efforts^ 
refusing  to  confess  the  doctrine  of  tran substantiation,  the 
necessity  of  pilgrimages,  and  the  worship  of  saints.     He  was 


172  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

condemned  and  thrown  into  the  Tower.  He  escaped  and  fled 
into  Wales,  where  he  remained  several  years;  but  was  at 
length,  in  1418,  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies  and 
put  to  death. 

At  Lambeth  Palace  may  yet  be  seen  the  Lollard's  Tower, 
built  by  Archbishop  Chicheley,  of  Canterbury,  for  the  impri- 
sonment of  those  accused  of  heresy.  In  the  room  at  the  top 
of  the  tower,  the  iron  rings  to  which  the  prisoners  were 
fastened,  still  remain  fixed  in  the  walls,  and  on  the  boards 
which  compose  them  may  be  traced  in  rude  letters  the  names 
of  many  of  these  early  martyrs  of  Protestantism.  One  in- 
scription in  Latin,  "  Sweet  to  die  for  Jesus/'  is  particularly 
touching. 

The  miseries  caused  by  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  turned 
aside,  for  a  while,  the  violence  of  religious  persecution. 
Fuller,  speaking  of  the  Lollards  in  those  days,  says :  *'  the 
very  storm  was  their  shelter."  The  veneration  for  holy  wells, 
for  shrines,  for  pilgrimages,  and  especially  for  the  worship  of 
the  Virgin  Mary,  was  at  its  height.  One  shrine,  that  of 
"  Our  Lady  at  Walsingham,"  in  Norfolk,  was  resplendent 
with  gold  and  jewels,  the  offerings  of  pilgrims;  for,  says  an 
old  historian,  "  whoever  had  not  made  a  visit  and  an  offering 
to  the  blessed  Virgin  of  this  place,  was  looked  upon  as  impious 
and  irreligious." 

The  power  of  the  church  was  upheld  by  the  authority  of 
the  clergy  in  parliament.  Whilst  other  nobles  were  absent 
in  wars,  the  spiritual  peers  were  always  in  their  places,  and 
took  care  to  carry  such  measures  as  should  strengthen  the 
influence  of  their  order. 

The  wars  which  distracted  England  were  very  unfavorable 
to  the  progress  of  learning.  The  youth  of  all  classes,  even 
the  clergy  not  excepted,  were  expected  to  take  up  arms. 
Places  of  honor  and  profit  were  given,  not  to  the  learned  and 
industrious  scholar,  but  to  the  fawning  favorites  of  the  church. 
Meanwhile  the  students  of  the  universities  became  mendi- 
cants, strolling  from  castle  to  castle,  begging  for  support. 
Among  the  great  "  it  was  thought  enough  for  noblemen's  sons 


ENGLAND   DURING   THE   FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.         173 

to  wind  their  horns  and  to  carry  their  hawks  fair,  and  leave 
study  and  learning  to  the  children  of  mean  people/' 

There  were,  however,  noble  exceptions  to  this  indifference 
to  learning  among  men  of  rank.  John  Tiptoft,  Earl  of  Wor- 
cester, after  visiting  the  Holy  Land  and  the  countries  of 
southern  Europe,  returned  to  England,  and  presented  the 
valuable  library  which  he  had  collected  in  his  foreign  travels, 
to  the  University  of  Oxford.  This  accomplished  nobleman 
fell  a  victim  to  the  civil  wars.  He  was  a  Yorkist,  and  falling 
into  the  hands  of  the  Lancastrians,  was  beheaded  on  Tower 
Hill  in  1470.  "  The  axe  then,''  says  Fuller,  "  did,  at  one 
blow,  cut  off  more  learning  than  was  left  in  the  heads  of  all 
the  surviving  nobility." 

Anthony  Woodville,  Earl  Kivers,  a  brother  of  the  queen, 
was  another  accomplished  nobleman.  He  had  introduced  at 
the  court  of  Edward  IV.,  the  printer  Caxton,  and  was  the 
first  English  author  who  had  the  honor  and  gratification  of 
seeing  his  works  appear  in  print.  He,  too,  as  we  have  seen, 
fell  a  victim  to  the  savage  ferocity  of  those  wars  which 
respected  neither  learning  nor  piety. 

The  Inns  of  Court  produced  in  this  century  two  distin- 
guished lawyers — Sir  Thomas  Littleton  and  Sir  John  Fortes- 
cue.  Both  of  these  judges  composed  law  books  of  great 
value,  and  both  lived  to  a  good  old  age.  Sir  John  Fortescue 
was  ninety  years  old  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

Although  learning  in  these  days  was  far  from  being  gene- 
rally appreciated,  the  building  and  endowing  of  scholastic 
edifices  was  still  regarded  as  a  work  of  piety,  and  during  the 
fifteenth  century  no  less  than  forty  such  institutions  were 
founded  in  the  different  countries  of  Europe.  At  Oxford, 
Lincoln  College  was  commenced  by  a  bishop  of  Lincoln,  who, 
from  being  a  warm  admirer,  was  won  by  church  preferments 
to  become  a  bitter  opposer,  of  Wickliffe.  He  erected  this 
college  for  scholars,  the  object  of  whose  studies  should  be  to 
overthrow  the  doctrines  of  the  Lollards. 

Archbishop  Chicheley,  who  built  the  Lollard's  Tower  at 
Lambeth,  erected  also  at  Oxford,  in  1437,  ''All  Souls  College," 
15* 


174  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

wherein  constant  prayers  and  masses  were  to  be  offered  for  the 
souls  of  the  departed,  especially  for  those  who  had  perished,  or 
should  perish,  in  the  French  wars.  In  this  same  university, 
on  the  banks  of  the  quiet  Cherwell,  arose  that  noble  specimen 
of  Gothic  architecture — the  College  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene. 
It  was  founded  by  William  de  Waynflete,  bishop  of  Win- 
chester and  lord  chancellor  of  England,  in  the  year  1458. 
At  Cambridge,  King's  and  Queen's  Colleges  were  erected  by 
King  Henry  VI.  and  his  wife  Margaret  of  Anjou.  The 
former  also  founded,  opposite  Windsor,  the  celebrated  Eton 
College : 

"Where  grateful  Science  still  adores 
Her  Henry's  holy  shade." 

The  chapel  of  King's  College  is  renowned  for  the  beauty 
of  its  Grothic  architecture.  The  roof,  in  its  combination  of 
massy  strength  with  airy  lightness,  has  never  been  equalled. 
It  "  looks,"  says  an  author  in  describing  it,  "  as  if  cut  at  once 
by  an  invisible  power  out  of  a  solid  quarry  of  stone.  As  we 
walk  under  this  incomparable  arch,  we  behold  in  the  centre, 
vast  stones  of  more  than  a  ton  weight  suspended  over  our 
heads,  with  no  other  support  than  the  exquisite  harmony  of 
the  whole."  It  is  said  that  so  great  was  Sir  Christopher 
Wren's  admiration  of  this  noble  work,  that  he  went  once 
every  year  to  survey  it,  and  remarked  that  if  any  man  would 
show  him  where  to  place  the  first  stone,  he  would  engage  to 
build  such  another. 

The  professors  of  science  at  both  of  the  universities  had 
hitherto  delivered  their  lectures  in  convents  or  private  houses. 
To  remedy  the  inconveniences  attendant  on  this  plan,  there 
were  erected  during  the  present  period,  public  schools,  ex- 
pressly appropriated  to  the  several  departments  of  science. 
At  Oxford,  the  magnificent  divinity  school  and  library  was 
begun  in  1427,  and  completed  in  1480.  Besides  the  rich 
Humphrey,  Duke  of  Gloucester,  it  numbered  archbishops  and 
bishops  among  its  liberal  benefactors.  The  beauty  of  its 
architecture  was  appreciated  even  at  that  day.     It  is  called 


ENGLAND   DURING   THE   FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.         175 

by  a  grateful  recipient  of  its  benefits,  "a  work  worthy  of 
God,  as  much  superior  to  all  the  great  edifices  around  it,  in 
magnitude  and  beauty,  as  divinity,  to  which  it  is  dedicated,  is 
superior  to  all  the  other  sciences/^ 

The  studies  of  this  age  were  mixed  with  much  that  was 
frivolous  and  fanciful.  In  medicine  there  was  far  more  of 
superstition  than  of  science.  The  discovei'y  of  the  "elixir 
of  life,"  a  fabled  remedy  which  was  to  cure  all  diseases, 
became  one  of  the  objects  of  the  researches  of  the  physician. 
Astrology  and  alchemy  were  so  mixed  up  with  the  sciences  of 
mathematics,  astronomy,  and  chemistry,  that  few  useful  dis- 
coveries were  made.  Some  writers  suppose  that  the  alche- 
mists of  the  middle  ages  were  not  seeking  any  chimera,  such 
as  the  elixir  of  life,  or  the  philosopher's  stone,  but  that  under 
these  mystical  terms  they  were  teaching  moral  truth,  and  were 
obliged  to  use  this  symbolical  language  because  of  the  ignorant 
and  persecuting  spirit  of  an  age  which  would  not  tolerate  a 
more  clear  and  simple  setting  forth  of  religious  truths/ 

The  art  of  printing  was  introduced  into  England  by  William 
Caxton,  a  native  of  Kent  and  a  merchant  of  London.  Caxton 
had  resided  some  years  in  Flanders,  and  there  learned  the 
valuable  art,  which  he  brought  into  England  in  the  year 
1474.  The  first  book  printed  in  England  was  a  translation 
from  the  French,  entitled  "  The  Game  and  Playe  of  the 
Chesse."  The  titles  of  the  first  books  published  by  Caxton, 
and  other  early  English  printers,  discover  the  literary  taste  of 
that  day.  They  are  chiefly  romances,  the  lives  of  saints,  and 
books  of  devotion.  Scarcely  a  book  on  science  appears  among 
them. 

Chaucer's  works  were  among  the  earliest  printed.  A  beau- 
tiful instance  of  the  integrity  of  honest  William  Caxton  is 
given  in  the  preface  of  his  second  edition  of  the  works  of  the 
first  English  poet.  The  manuscript  from  which  he  had 
printed  the  previous  edition  was  exceedingly  imperfect.  When 
Caxton  discovered  this,  he  rested  not  until  he  had  procured  a 
better  copy,  and  printed  a  correct  edition,  in  the  preface  of 
which   he  states  that  he  did  it  "for  to  satisfy  the  auctor, 


176  HISTORY   OP    ENGLAND. 

whereas  before  by  ignorance  I  erred  in  hurting  and  defaming 
his  book  in  divers  places,  in  setting  in  some  things  that  he 
never  said  he  made,  and  leaving  out  many  things  that  he 
made  which  been  requisite  to  be  set  in." 

The  language  of  the  fifteenth  century  was  more  like  modern 
English  than  it  had  hitherto  been.  One  circumstance  which 
retarded  its  progress  was  the  unsettled  orthography  of  those 
days.  In  examining  the  specimen  given  from  Lord  Cobham's 
confession  of  faith,  it  will  be  found  that  in  a  single  piece  of 
writing  he  spells  the  same  words,  such  as  commandments  and 
pilgrimages,  in  two  or  three  different  ways.  No  two  authora 
spelled  alike,  and  there  was  no  fixed  standard. 

The  wars  of  this  age  had  not  only  an  ill  effect  upon  learn- 
ing, but  also  upon  the  useful  arts.  Agriculture  was  much 
neglected,  and  the  nobles  were  obliged  to  turn  large  tracts 
into  pasturages,  and  to  depend  for  grain  on  the  quantities 
brought  from  foreign  countries,  to  be  exchanged  for  English 
wool.  Few  vegetables  were  cultivated.  Famines  were  fre- 
quent, and  the  poorer  classes  were  often  compelled  to  feed 
upon  dried  roots  and  herbs.  In  one  village  in  Northumber- 
land, a  writer  declares  that  the  inhabitants  had  never  seen 
wine  nor  wheat  bread. 

Although  some  beautiful  churches  and  colleges  arose  iu 
this  century,  architecture  was  not  encouraged  to  so  great  an 
extent  as  in  the  preceding  period.  These  were  times  when 
men  were  more  employed  in  destroying  edifices,  than  in 
building  them.  Not  only  churches  and  castles,  but  even 
whole  villages,  were  destroyed  during  the  wars  of  York  and 
Lancaster.  Within  twelve  miles  of  the  town  of  Warwick, 
there  was  not  less  than  sixty  of  these  deserted  villages. 

When  the  storm  of  war  had  subsided,  and  dwellings  were 
rebuilt,  they  rose  more  in  the  form  of  manor  houses,  and  had 
less  of  a  castellated  appearance  than  in  former  times.  Beau- 
tiful oriel  windows  and  rich  oak  carvings  adorned  these  new 
edifices,  and  houses  of  brick  began  to  take  the  place  of  those 
of  wood.  The  bed-furniture  was  much  more  luxurious  and 
ornamental  than  in  any  previous  age.     We  hear,  among  the 


ENGLAND    DURING   THE   FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.         177 

better  class,  of  feather-beds,  mattrasses,  pillows,  blankets,  and 
sheets ;  also,  of  coverlets  of  tapestry,  richly  wrought,  or  of 
silk,  embroidered  with  gold  and  silver,  and  also  of  minever, 
the  latter  being  a  handsome  fur. 

The  city  mansions  of  the  nobility,  called  inns,  were  of  great 
extent.  The  great  Earl  of  Warwick  is  said  to  have  lodged 
six  hundred  men  at  his  inn  in  Warwick  Lane,  London,  and 
six  oxen  were  sometimes  consumed  there  at  a  breakfast. 

The  furniture  of  the  houses  was  still  very  scanty.  Painted 
ceilings  no  longer  prevailed.  The  walls  were  again  hung  with 
tapestry,  which  was  called  arras,  from  the  town  in  France 
where  it  was  chiefly  manufactured. 

The  silk  manufacture  of  England  took  its  rise  in  this  cen- 
tury. This  branch  of  industry,  now  so  important,  was  carried 
on  at  first  by  a  small  company  of  women.  In  1455,  a  law  was 
passed  to  protect  these  silk-women  against  the  Lombards  and 
other  Italian  merchants,  who  threatened,  by  their  importations, 
to  destroy  the  "mystery  and  occupation  of  silk-working,"  as  it 
is  designated  in  this  statute. 

The  Wars  of  the  Roses  seem  not  to  have  checked,  in  any 
great  degree,  commercial  prosperity,  for  this  age  produced 
many  enterprising  and  renowned  merchants.  The  hero  of  the 
story  of  Whytington  and  his  cat,  so  familiar  to  the  ears  of 
children,  was  a  distinguished  merchant  of  London.  He  was 
thrice  lord  mayor,  but  the  story  of  his  early  poverty  is  no 
doubt  false,  as  he  was  the  son  of  a  knight,  and  probably  began 
life  with  fair  prospects.  He  became  very  wealthy,  lent  large 
sums  of  money  to  his  sovereign,  aided  in  the  erection  of  a 
college,  and  built  an  almshouse  at  Highgate. 

Another  great  merchant  was  WilHam  Canyngs,  of  Bristol. 
He  engaged  largely  in  the  trade  carried  on  with  Iceland  for 
fish.  He,  too,  became  no  less  than  five  times  mayor  of 
Bristol,  founded  the  church  of  St.  Mary's,  and  was  a  liberal 
benefactor  to  his  native  city.  Nor  did  crowned  heads  disdain 
to  engage  in  the  lucrative  pursuits  of  trade.  Edward  IV. 
was  one  of  the  most  active  merchants  in  his  kingdom. 
''  Like  a  man  whose  living  depended  upon  his  merchandise," 

M 


178  H18T0RY    OF   ENGLAND. 

he  exported  the  finest  wool,  cloth,  tin,  and  other  commodities 
of  the  kingdom,  to  Italy  and  Greece,  and  imported  their  pro- 
duce in  return. 

Besides  foreign  commerce  in  which  English  ships  engaged, 
they  were  extensively  employed  in  the  fisheries  at  home. 
The  herring-fisheries  on  the  coast  of  Norfolk  had  become 
extremely  valuable,  and  the  herring-fair,  held  yearly  at  Yar- 
mouth, was  visited  by  shipping  from  all  parts  of  Europe. 

The  same  extravagance  in  dress  material,  although  the 
fashion  of  wearing  it  changed,  prevailed  in  this  as  in  the  last 
century.  Heart-shaped,  horned,  and  steepled  head-dresses 
were  fashionable  among  women,  who  wore  also  very  short- 
waisted  dresses,  and  broad  belts  of  velvet  fastened  by  large 
handsome  buckles.  They  also  wore  trains.  We  hear  of  gold 
and  silver  cloth,  silk,  and  velvet  in  abundance.  In  Ed- 
ward IV.'s  reign,  purple  was  made  a  royal  color,  and  all  who 
did  not  belong  to  the  royal  fiuiiily  were  forbidden  to  wear  it. 
The  dress  of  the  common  people  was  simple,  and  more  sensible 
than  that  of  the  other  classes. 

In  the  midst  of  war  and  famine,  sumptuous  feasting  was 
still  kept  up  in  the  abodes  of  the  noble  and  wealthy.  The 
two  meals  a  day  were  now  multiplied  to  four — breakfast  at 
seven,  dinner  at  ten,  supper  at  four  in  the  afternoon,  and  a 
refreshment  called  livery,  served  in  the  bed-chamber  between 
eight  and  nine  o'clock  in  the  evening 

The  dinner  was  spread  on  the  long  oaken  table  which 
stretched  the  entire  length  of  the  castle  hall.  At  the  head, 
on  a  dais  or  raised  platform,  sat  the  lord,  with  his  friends  and 
retainers.  Below  the  great  silver  salt  cellar  sat  those  of  infe- 
rior rank.  The  board  was  loaded  with  fresh  and  salt  meats, 
fowl,  and  fish.  The  food  was  eaten  with  the  fingers,  forks 
being  then  an  unknown  luxury.  Wine,  ale,  and  beer,  from 
the  neighboring  sideboard,  were  served  to  the  guests  in  cups 
of  pewter  or  wood. 

Between  the  courses,  was  placed  on  the  table  a  species 
of  confectionery  called  a  subtlety.  It  consisted  of  pastry 
or  jellies  made  to  represent  human,  animal,  or  allegorical 


ENGLAND   DURING    THE    FIFTEENTH    CENTURY.         179 

figul'es,  to  whioh  a  label  was  suspended,  having  some  witty  or 
puzzling  writing  upon  it,  intended  to  exercise  the  curiosity 
and  ingenuity  of  the  guests.  On  perches  overhead  stood  the 
favorite  hawks  and  falcons  of  the  lord  of  the  feast,  whilst  his 
hounds,  of  which  there  was  a  goodly  number,  lay  at  his  feet. 
Three  hours  were  consumed  at  dinner,  during  which  the  hall 
was  filled  with  jugglers,  minstrels,  tumblers,  and  jesters,  who 
performed  antics  for  the  amusement  oi'  the  company. 

The  motley  dress  of  the  fool,  having  the  edges  hung  round 
with  little  sheep-bells,  his  cap,  to  which  were  hung  asses'  ears, 
and  which  was  ridiculously  ornamented  with  a  feather,  and 
his  bauble  or  staff,  finished  off  with  the  carved  head  of  a 
zany ; — all  these,  together  with  his  broad  jokes  at  the  expense 
of  the  highest  in  the  land,  furnished  an  inexhaustible  fund 
of  amusement  to  the  coarse  taste  of  that  age. 

The  passion  for  tournaments  somewhat  decHned  by  the 
close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  but  the  taste  for  a  species  of 
exhibition  called  pageants  was  at  its  height.  When  Henry  V. 
returned  the  victor  from  Agiucourt,  he  was  greeted  by  the 
citizens  of  London  with  a  splendid  pageant.  On  London 
Bridge  stood  the  figure  of  a  huge  giant,  which  declaimed  in 
rhyme  a  welcome  to  the  king.  On  a  turret  stood  a  troop, 
representing  angels,  singing  "  Blessed  is  he  that  cometh  in 
the  name  of  the  Lord."  As  he  rode  into  the  town  through 
streets  draped  with  silk  and  tapestry,  he  was  met  at  intervals 
by  similar  displays.  On  a  great  conduit  running  with  wine 
in  Cheapside,  stood  figures  of  the  twelve  apostles,  all  chanting 
a  welcome  to  the  king. 

Cards,  which  were  invented  in  this  century,  by  a  painter 
of  Paris,  were  so  costly,  being  richly  illuminated,  like  the 
missals,  by  hand,  that  only  the  rich  could  afford  to  play  with 
them.  Among  the  lower  classes,  besides  wrestling  and  arch- 
ery, games  of  ball  and  bowls  were  much  indulged  in.  Blind- 
man's-buff,  battledore  and  shuttlecock,  swimming  on  bladders, 
twirling  hoops,  and  skating,  were  favorite  amusements  among 
the  young  people  of  this  age. 

The  Wars  of  the  Roses,  although  productive  of  so  much 


180  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

evil,  led  to  one  grand  result — they  hastened  the  abolition 
of  villanage  and  serfdom  in  England.  The  great  lords  were 
obliged  to  arm  their  villains  in  these  wars,  and  it  was  difficult 
to  compel  their  return  to  a  state  of  servitude.  Consequently, 
at  the  close  of  this  century,  we  find  the  condition  of  the 
common  people  so  prosperous,  that  laws  were  made  to  prevent 
their  indulging  in  certain  articles  of  luxury,  which  were  con- 
sidered as  the  exclusive  privilege  of  their  superiors. 

The  House  of  Commons  during  this  period  claimed  two 
important  rights :  the  one  calling  for  an  account  of  the 
expenditure  of  the  supplies  voted  by  them,  and  the  other  the 
right  to  impeach  the  ministers  of  the  king  for  misconduct. 

Philip  de  Comines,  a  celebrated  French  chronicler  of  these 
times,  makes  -the  following  declaration  :  "  Of  all  the  states  in 
the  world  that  I  know,  England  is  the  country  where  the  com- 
monwealth is  best  governed,  and  the  people  least  oppressed." 
^ 

Questions. — Describe  the  instances  given  of  religious  persecution 
during  this  period. — Mention  some  of  the  superstitions  which  pre- 
vailed greatly  in  the  fifteenth  century. — Describe  the  efiFect  of  the 
Wars  of  the  Roses  upon  learning. — What  distinguished  lawyers 
flourished  in  this  century? — Describe  the  various  foundations  for 
learning  during  this  period. 

What  retarded  the  progress  of  true  science  in  this  age  ? — By  whom 
and  when  was  printing  introduced? — What  was  the  first  book  printed 
in  England? — What  kind  of  books  found  greatest  favor  in  those 
days? — What  prevented  the  English  language  becoming  fixed  by 
one  standard? — What  was  the  consequence  of  the  neglect  of  agri- 
culture during  this  period  ? 

How  was  architecture  affected  by  the  tumults  of  the  time? — How 
did  the  buildings  which  were  erected  after  the  wars  differ  from 
those  of  a  former  age  ? — Relate  the  account  given  of  the  silk  manu- 
facture.— Repeat  what  is  said  of  the  styles  and  materials  of  dress  in 
this  century. — Describe  the  arrangement  of  the  dining-table  in  a 
great  lord's  hall. — Describe  the  pageant  which  the  citizens  of  London 
prepared,  to  do  honor  to  Henry  V. — How  did  the  lower  orders  and 
children  amuse  themselves? — What  great  good  was  brought  out  of 
the  evil  of  the  wars  of  this  age? — What  two  important  rights  were 
claimed  by  the  Commons  during  this  century  ? — What  does  a  French 
writer  say  of  England  at  this  period  ? 


HENRY   VIII.  181 


PART  VIII. 
ENGLAND  DURING  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 

HENRY  VIII.— EDWARD  VI.— MARY— ELIZABETH. 

A.  D.  1509—1603. 

*'  They  sing  a  service  which  they  feel, 
For  'tis  the  summer  now  of  zeal, 
Of  a  pure  faith  the  vernal  prime. 
In  the  great  Tudor's  golden  time." 

Wordsworth. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

HENRY  VIII. — THE  FIRST  TWENTY  YEARS  OF  HIS  REIGN. 

WARS — WOLSEY — RELATIONS    WITH     FOREIGN     PRINCES — THE    KING'S    DI- 
VORCE— wolsey's  fall. 

Thus  early  in  the  sixteenth  century  was  Henry  VIII.,  the 
second  monarch  of  the  house  of  Tudor,  firmly  seated 

1509.  .  '  "^ 

upon  the  throne,  which  the  battle  of  Bosworth  had 
won  for  his  predecessor. 

In  former  ages,  kings  had  ruled  by  force  of  arms,  rather 
than  by  policy.  The  only  check  which  the  power  of  the 
monarch  received  had  been  from  the  great  barons  with  whom 
he  was  occasionally  at  war.  But  now,  the  twenty  battles  of 
the  wars  of  York  and  Lancaster,  and  the  executions  which 
too  often  followed  them,  had  cut  off  the  greatest  of  England's 
aristocracy.  The  commons  were  not  yet  strong  enough  to 
oppose  the  power  of  the  kings,  so  that  the  royal  authority  in 
the  hands  of  the  spirited  sovereigns  of  the  house  of  Tudor, 
16 


182  IIIsTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

was  more  absolute  than  at  any  other  period  of  English 
history. 

In  the  pleasure-loving  prince  of  eighteen  who  now  ascended 
the  thronC;  the  people  little  dreamed  they  saw  one  who,  before 
his  reign  of  thirty-eight  years  should  end,  would  prove  one 
of  the  most  violent  and  absolute  monarchs  that  ever  swayed  a 
sceptre.  But  now  "  all  went  merry  as  a  marriage  bell.'' 
Amidst  jousts  and  tournaments,  feasts  and  pageantries,  the 
coronation  of  Henry  VIII.  and  his  young  queen,  Katherine 
of  Arragon,  was  celebrated.  The  people  rejoiced  in  the  death 
of  Empson  and  Dudley,  the  rapacious  lawyers  of  Henry  VII. 
They  did  not  reflect  that  when  the  large  treasures  which 
these  unprincipled  men  had  amassed,  should  be  spent  in 
gratifying  the  magnificent  tastes  of  the  young  monarch,  the 
royal  cofi'era  of  the  spendthrift  son  would  be  supplied  by 
means  similar  to  those  which  had  made  the  reign  of  the 
miser  father  so  odious. 

Henry,  possessing  none  of  the  talents  of  a  great  general, 
yet  loved  "  the  pomp  and  cirxjumstance  of  glorious  war,"  and 
thus  was  easily  persuaded  by  his  crafty  father-in-law,  the  king 
of  Spain,  to  engage  in  hostilities  with  France.  With 
a  well-equipped  army,  Henry  crossed  the  Channel, 
and,  announcing  his  arrival  by  the  firing  of  great  guns, 
coasted  along  the  French  shores.  Nothing  very  important 
was  done  in  this  war,  in  which  Henry  was  but  a  tool  in  the 
hands,  first  of  the  Spanish  king,  and  finally  of  Maximilian, 
the  emperor  of  Germany.  In  one  battle  the  English  gained 
a  complete  victory;  the  enemy,  being  seized  with  a  panic,  fled 
so  rapidly  from  the  field,  that  the  French  prisoners  themselves 
merrily  named  it  '*  The  Battle  of  the  Spurs." 

Although  King  James  IV.  of  Scotland  was  brother-in-law 
to  Henry  VIIL,  he  had  become  the  ally  of  France,  and 
whilst  Henry  was  in  that  country,  the  war-challenge  of  the 
Scottish  monarch  was  sent  to  him.  Henry  committed  the 
conduct  of  an  expedition  against  his  hostile  relative,  into 
the  hands  of  Thomas  Howard,  Earl  of  Surrey.     At  Flodden 


HENRY  VIII.  183 

Field,  among  the  Cheviot  Hills,  the  English  and 
Scotch  armies  met  in  combat,  and  there  was  fought 
one  of  the  famous  battles  in  English  history.  When  night 
ended  the  conflict,  King  James  of  Scotland,  with  nine  thou- 
sand of  his  noblest  subjects,  lay  dead  upon  the  field.  "  Scarce 
a  Scottish  family  of  eminence,''  says  Sir  Walter  Scott,  "  but 
has  an  ancestor  killed  at  Flodden ;  and  there  is  no  province 
in  Scotland,  even  at  this  day,  where  the  battle  is  mentioned 
without  a  sensation  of  sorrow  and  terror.'^ 

"  Tradition,  legend,  tune,  and  song, 
Still  many  an  age  that  wail  prolong, 
Still  from  the  sire  the  son  shall  hear 
Of  the  stern  strife  and  carnage  drear, 

Of  Flodden's  fatal  field, 
Where  shivered  was  fair  Scotland's  spear, 

And  broken  was  her  shield!" — Marmion. 

By  a  treaty  which  terminated  in  1514  the  war  with  France, 
Mary,  Henry  YIlI.'s  youngest  sister,  was  given  in  marriage 
to  Louis  XII.,  the  French  king.  Among  those  who  accom- 
panied the  Princess  Mary  to  France,  was  a  pretty  child,  a 
maid  of  honor  to  the  queen,  named  Anna  Boleyn.  At  the 
French  court  she  was  to  learn  graces  and  accomplishments 
which,  unaccompanied  by  principle,  were  destined  to  work 
sorrow  enough  on  her  return  to  England.  A  few  months 
after  his  marriage  with  Mary  of  England,  the  French  king 
died,  and  was  succeeded  by  Francis  I.,  a  young,  gay,  and 
ambitious  monarch.  Four  years  later,  died  Maximilian,  em- 
peror of  Germany,   and  to  the   imperial   throne   succeeded 

Charles  Y.,  one  of  the   ablest   princes  in  Europe. 

Before  the  election  of  Charles,  the  French  king  had 
hoped  to  gain  for  himself  the  crown  of  the  G-erman  Empire. 
When,  therefore,  Charles  was  chosen,  Francis,  from  being  his 
rival,  became  his  enemy.  Both  these  sovereigns  sought  the 
friendship  and  alliance  of  the  king  of  England.  But  Henry 
VIII.  was  now  hardly  master  in  his  own  dominions.     The 


184  HISTORY   OP   ENGLAND. 

rule  of  England,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  was  given  into  the 
hands  of  one  remarkable  courtier  and  favorite.  The  foreign 
sovereign  and  the  English  subject  ahke  did  homage  to  the 
all-potent  influence  of  this  "  great  child  of  honor." 

The  man  who  possessed  the  genius  to  rule  for  twenty  years 
one  of  the  most  absolute  monarchs  of  his  age,  was  Thomas 
Wolsey,  the  son  of*  a  wealthy  butcher  and  drover  of  Ipswich. 
At  Oxford,  where  the  young  Wolsey  studied,  he  attained  so 
early  to  eminence,  that  at  the  time  his  first  degree  was 
bestowed,  he  was  called  the  Boy  Bachelor.  His  talents 
brought  him  into  notice,  and  he  was  introduced  to  the  king 
by  Bishop  Fox.  Wolsey,  to  a  genius  for  magnificence  and 
display,  added  the  policy  of  a  statesman,  and  the  wit  and 
gayety  of  a  courtier.  These  qualities  gave  him  unbounded 
influence  over  the  pleasure-loving,  vain-glorious  monarch  of 
England.  He  was  made  successively  bishop  of  Lincoln,  arch- 
bishop of  York,  cardinal,  lord  chancellor,  and  finally,  papal 
legate.  He  was  also  abbot  of  St.  Alban's,  bishop  of  Bath  and 
Wells,  which  see  he  subsequently  exchanged  for  that  of 
Durham,  and  the  latter  again  for  Winchester.  His  equipage 
and  attire  exceeded  in  magnificence  that  of  Thomas  h  Becket, 
whose  splendor  had  dazzled  the  nation  in  a  former  age. 

The  cardinal's  "  fine  figure  was  set  off  with  silks  and  satins 
of  the  finest  texture,  and  richest  scarlet  or  crimson  dye ;  his 
neck  and  shoulders  were  covered  with  a  tippet  of  costly  sables; 
his  gloves  were  of  red  silk;  his  hat,  of  a  cardinal,  was  scarlet; 
his  shoes  were  of  silver-gilt,  inlaid  with  pearls  and  diamonds. 
*****  fjg  jj^ept  a  train  of  eight  hundred  persons, 
amongst  whom  were  nine  or  ten  lords,  the  beggared  descend- 
ants of  proud  barons.  He  had  fifteen  knights  and  forty 
squires.  All  his  domestics  were  splendidly  attired ;  his  cook 
wore  a  satin  or  velvet  jacket,  and  a  chain  of  gold  round  his 
neck.  When  Wolsey  appeared  in  public,  his  cardinal's  hat 
was  borne  before  him  by  a  person  of  rank :  two  priests,  the 
tallest  and  best-looking  that  could  be  found,  immediately  pre- 
ceded him,  carrying  two  ponderous  silver  crosses;  two  gentle- 


HENRY  VIII.  185 

men,  each  bearing  a  silver  staff,  walked  before  the  two  priests, 
and  in  front  of  all  went  his  pursuivant-at-arms,  bearing  a  huge 
mace  of  silver-gilt.  Most  of  his  followers  were  mounted  upon 
spirited  horses,  perfect  in  training  and  richly  caparisoned; 
but  he,  himself,  as  a  priest,  rode  on  a  mule,  with  saddle  and 
saddle-cloth  of  crimson  velvet,  and  stirrups  of  silver-gilt.  At 
his  levee,  which  he  held  every  morning  at  an  early  hour, 
after  a  very  short  mass,  he  always  appeared  clad  all  in  red."* 
The  money  which  supported  the  state  of  this  gorgeous 
churchman  was  not  wrung  from  the  people ',  for  in  the  early 
part  of  his  career,  Wolsey's  domestic  administration  was  for 
the  most  part,  wise,  just,  and  popular.  The  presents  and 
bribes  of  foreign  princes,  together  with  the  rich  gifts  of  his 
royal  master,  rendered  his  revenue  princely. 

Francis  I.,  desirous  of  continuing  the  treaty  with 

England,  proposed  a  personal  interview  with  King 
Henry.  To  counteract  the  effect  of  this,  the  Emperor  Charles 
hastened  to  England,  on  pretence  of  a  visit  to  his  aunt,  the 
English  queen.  By  the  tempting  promise  of  using  his  influ- 
ence to  secure  to  Wolsey  the  papal  throne  on  the  death  of  the 
reigning  pontiff,  he  engaged  that  ambitious  statesman  to 
render  the  approaching  interview  between  Henry  and  Francis 
of  none  effect.  The  interview  did  take  place  in  France,  not 
far  from  Calais.  The  splendors  of  the  jousts  and  tournaments, 
of  the  balls  and  feastings,  and  in  fact  of  all  the  magnificence 
enacted  on  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,  recall  the  fables 
of  the  Arabian  Nights  Entertainments.  A  fortnight  was 
consumed  in  this  interview,  during  which  whole  estates  were 
spent  in  contributing  to  a  vain-glorious  display.  Nor  did  the 
peace  which  was  entered  into,  by  any  means,  ^'  value  the  cost 
which  did  conclude  it." 

In  two  years  it  was  broken,  and  Henry,  or  Wolsey 

rather,  was  in  close  alliance  with  the  emperor.  This 
lasted  until  the  year  1523,  when  Pope  Adrian  died.     He  was 

*  Pictorial  History  of  England. 
16* 


186  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND, 

the  second  Pope  whose  death  had  left  vacant  the  papal  throne 
since  the  promise  given  by  the  emperor  to  Wolsey.  The 
cardinal  now  certainly  expected  to  gain  the  height  of  his 
ambition,  but  he  was  disappointed.  Pope  Clement  VII.  was 
elected,  and  Wolsey,  though  at  first  dissembling  his  anger, 
was  no  longer  Charles's  friend,  and  two  years  later  persuaded 
his  royal  master  to  enter  again  into  treaty  with  Francis  I. 
But  the  career  of  the  proud  cardinal  was  drawing  to  a  close. 
In  the  year  1527,  circumstances  occurred  which  drew  upon 
him  the  full  weight  of  the  monarch's  displeasure.  The  king, 
possessed  with  the  desire  of  marrying  the  fascinating  Anna 
Boleyn,  who  had  returned  from  France,  and  was  now  a  maid 
of  honor  to  the  English  queen,  endeavored  to  obtain  a  divorce. 
With  this  object,  Henry  applied  to  the  Pope,  pleading  con- 
scientious scruples  regarding  the  lawfulness  of  his  marriage 
with  Katherine  of  Arragon,  because  she  had  been  previously 
married  to  his  brother  Arthur. 

At  first.  Cardinal  Wolsey  encouraged  the  idea  of  the  di- 
vorce, having  planned  to  unite  his  royal  master  to  a  French 
princess.  When,  however,  he  found  Henry  bent  on  wedding 
A  una  Boleyn,  he  became  lukewarm  in  the  matter.  This 
opposition  to  the  ambitious  maid  of  honor  wrought  the  ruin 
of  the  powerful  cardinal.  Nothing  could  deter  the  king  from 
his  purpose.  Although  the  Pope,  through  fear  of  Katherine's 
powerful  nephew,  the  German  emperor,  refused  to 
issue  a  bill  of  divorce,  Henry  would  not  yield,  and 
only  became  more  irritated  against  those  who  opposed  him. 

Whilst  the  king  was  in  this  frame  of  mind,  Thomas  Cran- 
mer,  a  tutor  in  the  family  of  an  English  gentleman,  chanced 
to  say,  in  the  hearing  of  Gardiner,  the  king's  secretary,  that 
the  proper  way  to  settle  the  lawfulness  of  the  king's  marriage, 
would  be  to  appeal  to  the  learned  men  of  the  universities 
of  Europe,  who  would  decide  the  question  upon  the  authority 
of  Scripture,  without  any  further  regard  to  the  Pope.  This 
proposition  being  reported,  was  forthwith  adopted  by  Henry, 
who  raised  the  author  of  it  to  the  post  of  royal  chaplain. 


HENRY   VIII.  187 

Cranmer  afterwards  became  arclibisliop  of  Canterbury,  and  in 
another  reign  we  shall  find  him  the  most  distinguished  re- 
former of  the  English  church. 

Oxford  and  Cambridge,  Padua,  Bologna,  Ferrara,  Paris, 
Orleans,  and  other  famous  universities,  declared,  that,  by  the 
law  of  God,  a  marriage  with  a  brother's  wife  was  forbidden. 
These  opinions  of  the  learned  encouraged  Henry  in  the  pro- 
secution of  his  design. 

Meanwhile  the  great  cardinal  had  fallen.  Accused  of  vio- 
lating the  law  of  the  land,  in  acting  as  papal  legate  in  England, 
he  was  removed  from  his  magnificent  palace  at  York-Place,  to 
his  country-seat  at  Esher.  Soon  afterwards  the  great  seal 
was  taken  from  him,  and  he  was  commanded  to  retire  to  his 
see  of  York.  Here  he  devoted  himself  to  the  charge  of  his 
people,  like  a  good  and  worthy  bishop.  He  gave  alms  to  the 
poor,  and  set  about  rebuilding  and  repairing  the  churches  and 
religious  houses,  in  which  work  he  employed  hundreds  of 
laborers.  Thus,  in  doing  good  and  winning  the  affection  of 
all  about  him,  Wolsey,  "  who  had  trod  the  ways  of  glory,"  no 
doubt  enjoyed  more  real  happiness  than  he  had  ever  known 
in  the  day  of  his  greatness. 

But  this  was  not  to  last.  Accused  of  correspondence  with 
the  Pope  and  the  French  king,  he  was  arrested  for  high 
treason.  This  was  his  death-blow.  He  lived  not  to  pass 
through  the  Traitor's  Gate  into  the  Tower.  Reaching  Lei- 
cester Abbey  on  his  journey  to  London,  he  grew  too  ill  to  go 
further.  Dismounting  from  his  mule  at  the  door  of  the  con- 
vent, where  stood  the  monks  with  lighted  tapers  to  receive 
him,  he  said  to  the  abbot:  "Father,  I  am  come  to  lay  my 
bones  among  you.''  Among  Wolsey's  dying  words  was  the 
sad  remorseful  confession — 

*'  Had  I  but  served  my  God  with  half  the  zeal 
I  served  my  king,  He  would  not  in  mine  age 
Have  left  me  naked  to  mine  enemies." 

Thus  did  this  great  man  give  witness  to  the  truth  of  the 


188  HISTORY   OP   ENGLAND. 

Psalmist's  warning :  "  Put  not  your  trust  in  princes,  nor  in 
any  child  of  man,  for  there  is  no  help  in  them.'\^ 


Questions. — How  had  kings  ruled  in  times  preceding  the  six- 
teenth century  ? — Describe  the  condition  of  the  royal  authority  at 
the  opening  of  this  century. — What  was  the  character  and  age  of 
Henry  VIII.  at  the  time  of  his  accession  to  the  throne? — What  kind 
of  a  monarch  did  he  prove? — How  was  his  coronation  celebrated? — 
With  what  country  did  Heni-y  make  war  ? — What  one  victory  did 
Henry  gain  in  this  war  ?— What  relative  of  Henry  VIII.'s  became  the 
ally  of  France? — What  war  was  the  result  of  this  alliance? — What 
celebrated  battle  was  fought  ? — What  was  the  issue  to  the  Scottish 
monarch  and  his  kingdom? 

Whom  did  the  English  Princess  Mary  marry  ? — What  is  said  of 
Anna  Boleyn  at  the  time  of  this  marriage  ? — Who  succeeded  Louis 
XII.  on  the  throne  of  France? — What  other  sovereign  died  a  few 
years  later? — Name  his  successor. — What  were  now  the  relations 
between  Charles  and  Francis  ? — What  was  Henry's  position  at  this 
time? 

Give  some  account  of  the  early  history  of  Cardinal  Wolsey. — Men- 
tion the  honors  conferred  upon  him  by  the  king. — Describe  his  ap- 
pearance.—Describe  the  state  in  which  he  made  his  public  appear- 
ance.— What  is  said  of  Wolsey  as  a  statesman? — Whence  did  he 
obtain  his  riches  ? — What  steps  did  the  German  emperor  take  to 
counteract  the  French  treaty? — How  was  Wolsey's  favor  secured? — 
Describe  the  interview  between  the  kings  of  England  and  France. — 
What  is  said  of  the  treaty  then  concluded  ? — State  the  circumstances 
which  led  to  Wolsey's  final  quarrel  with  the  king. — What  passion 
now  possessed  the  English  monarch  ? — On  what  plea  did  he  apply 
for  a  divorce  from  his  queen  ? — Describe  Wolsey's  conduct  in  this 
matter. — What  was  the  effect  of  Wolsey's  opposition  ? — Why  did  the 
Pope  refuse  a  divorce? — Repeat  the  suggestion  made  at  this  time 
by  Thomas  Cranmer. — State  the  effect  of  this  suggestion. — What 
accusation  was  brought  against  Wolsey? — Of  what  was  he  deprived  ? 
— Describe  W^olsey's  conduct  at  this  time. — Describe  the  close  of  this 
great  man's  career. 


HENRY   VIII.  189 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

HENRY  VIII. — THE  LAST   EIGHTEEN   YEARS   OF  HIS  REIGN. 

SIR    THOMAS    MOKE  —  OVERTHROW    OP    PAPAL.    POWER  —  ANNE     BOLEYN  — 
REFORMATION — SCOTLAND— FRANCE — THE    HOWARDS. 

When  the  great  seal  of  the  chancellorship  was  taken  from 
Cardinal  Wolsey,  it  was  given  to  Sir  Thomas  More. 
To  receive  this  perilous  honor,  the  new  chancellor 
was  drawn  from  a  beautiful  retirement  at  Chelsea.  Fain 
would  he  have  remained  in  the  midst  of  his  happy  and 
accomplished  family,  his  beautiful  gardens,  his  well-stored 
library,  and  literary  enjoyments,  and  not  have  tasted  the 
favor  of  his  capricious  sovereign.  One  of  the  learned  men 
of  this  age,  the  celebrated  Greek  scholar  Erasmus,  often 
visited  Sir  Thomas  More,  and  writes  thus  in  praise  of  the 
happy  home  at  Chelsea: — "A  house  in  which  every  one 
studies  the  liberal  sciences,  where  the  principal  care  is  virtue 
and  piety,  where  idleness  never  appears,  where  intemperate 
language  is  never  heard,  where  regularity  and  order  are  pre- 
served by  dint  of  kindness  and  courtesy,  where  every  one 
performs  his  duty,  and  yet  all  are  so  cheerful  as  if  mirth 
were  their  only  employment, — such  a  house  ought  rather  to 
be  termed  a  practical  school  of  the  Christian  religion." 

For  four  years  Sir  Thomas  More  retained  the  seals,  and 

also  the  favor  of  his  royal  master.     He  proved  an  upright 

and  incorruptible  judge.     The  number  of  suits  depending 

in  the  Court  of  Chancery  when  he  came  into  office,  was  not 

only  great,  but  many  had  been  of  twenty  years'  standing.     So 

untiring  was  the  new  chancellor  in  the  discharge  of 

his  duties,  that  ere  he  had  held  the  office  two  years, 

he  was  answered,  when  after  deciding  one  cause,  he  summoned 

another,  that  "  there  was  not  one  suit  more  depending." 

Sir  Thomas  More  would  not  unite  in  the  persecution  to 


190  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

which  Queen  Katherine  was  subjected  whilst  Henry  was 
endeavoring  to  procure  the  divorce.  Nor  would  he  favor 
the  separation  from  the  Church  of  Rome,  towards  which  the 
acts  of  the  king  now  tended.  He  knew,  therefore,  that  ruin 
would  probably  be  the  result  of  a  longer  continuance  at  court. 
Pleading  advancing  years,  he  gave  up  the  chancellorship,  and 
retired,  a  poorer  but  a  happier  man,  to  his  beloved  home  at 
Chelsea.  But,  alas!  there  was  not  that  spot  in 
Lngland,  however  graced  by  innocence,  learning,  or 
piety,  which  might  prove  a  shelter  from  the  despotic  will  of 
Henry  VIII.  At  the  close  of  the  year  1532  the  king  was 
privately  married  to  Anna  Boleyn,  and  in  June  of  the  follow- 
ing year  she  was  publicly  crowned  queen.  Cranmer,  now 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  convened  an  ecclesiastical  court,  in 
which  Henry's  marriage  with  Katherine  of  Arragon  was 
declared  null  and  void.  This  gentle,  yet  high-spirited  woman, 
who  never  for  a  moment  had  yielded  her  claim  as  the  lawful 
wife  of  Henry,  was  banished  from  court,  and  died  at  Kimbol- 
ton,  in  1536,  three  years  after  the  king's  marriage  with  Anna 
Boleyn.  On  her  death-bed  Katherine  earnestly  desired  to 
see  her  daughter,  the  Princess  Mary,  but  her  request  was 
refused. 

On  the  30th  of  March,  in  the  year  1534,  the  parliament 
of  England  gave  the  death-blow  to  papal  power  in  their 
country,  by  acknowledging  the  king  as  the  head  of  the 
English  Church.  It  was  now  required  of  English  subjects 
to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy.  This  was  refused  by  those 
Catholics  who  believed  in  the  Pope  alone  as  the  supreme 
head  of  the  Christian  church  in  all  lands.  Their  lives  paid 
the  penalty  of  their  refusal.  Many  a  zealous  monk  and 
priest  suffered  in  this  cause ;  but  the  fame  of  two  illustrious 
victims  obscures  that  of  all  the  others.  Sir  Thomas  More 
was  a  zealous  Roman  Catholic.  He  refused  the  oath  of 
supremacy.  The  upright  chancellor,  the  learned  scholar,  the 
steady  friend,  and  the  pious  Christian,  were  alike  forgotten 
by  the  absolute  monarch,  who  only  saw  in  him  now  the  man 
who  opposed  his  will. 


HENRY    YIII.  101 

Sir  Thomas  More,  together  with  his  aged  friend,  Bishop 
Fisher,  was  thrown  into  the  Tower.  The  latter  was,  like 
More,  an  early  friend  and  companion  of  the  king.  He  was 
also  one  of  the  most  learned  men  in  Europe.  While  he  lay 
a  prisoner  in  the  Tower,  the  Pope,  out  of  his  great  respect  to 
the  virtue  and  wisdom  of  the  aged  prelate,  suffering  in  the 
cause  of  the  church,  sent  him  a  cardinal's  hat.  "  Ha !" 
exclaimed  the  cruel  king,  "  Paul  may  send  him  the  hat ;  I 
will  take  care  that  he  have  never  a  head  to  wear  it  on."  The 
bishop  was  beheaded  on  the  22d  June,  1535. 

A  few  days  afterwards,  Sir  Thomas  More  was  brought  to 
trial.  In  Westminster  Hall,  where  he  once  presided  in  honor, 
he  now  appeared  clad  in  a  coarse  woollen  robe,  pale  and 
emaciated  from  the  rigors  of  his  year's  imprisonment,  to  be 
tried  by  judges,  who  to  do  the  king  a  pleasure,  were  resolved 
on  his  conviction.  More  pleaded  that  he  had  never  sought 
"  to  deprive  the  king  of  his  new  title  of  supreme  head  of  the 
church :  all  that  he  had  done  was  to  be  silent  thereon,  and 
that  silence  was  not  treason."  But  the  corrupt  judges  pro- 
nounced that  silence  was  treason,  afid  under  this  wicked  sen- 
tence the  jury  returned  a  verdict  of  guilty.  His  conduct,  both 
at  his  trial  and  on  the  scaffold,  was  the  perfection  of  Christian 
meekness  and  charity.  He  suffered  on  the  6th  July,  only 
fourteen  days  after  the  execution  of  his  friend  Fisher. 

All  Europe  was  roused  to  indignation,  by  the  news  that 
these  two  accomplished  scholars  had  laid  their  heads  upon 
the  executioner's  block.  When  told  of  the  chancellor's 
death,  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  exclaimed  :  "  I  should  rather 
have  lost  the  best  city  in  my  dominions  than  so  worthy  a 
counsellor  "  When  the  tidings  of  the  execution  were  brought 
to  King  Henry,  he  was  playing  at  chess  with  Anne  Boleyn 
Rising  hastily^  he  looked  with  a  stern  countenance  at  the 
queen,  saying :  ''  Thou  art  the  cause  of  the  death  of  this 
man !"  and  left  the  room,  for  a  moment  conscience-smitten 
by  this  deed  of  guilt. 

It  would  seem  impossible  that  the  king  should  show 
displeasure  towards  the  wife  for  whom  he  had  sacrificed  the 


192  HISTORY   OP   ENGLAND. 

happiness  of  his  noble  queen,  Wolsey,  the  friend  of  twenty 
years,  and  some  of  the  best  blood  in  the  kingdom.  But  what 
trust  can  be  placed  in  the  constancy  of  a  heart  swayed  by 
passion  ? 

The  harsh  words  uttered  on  the  occasion  of  Sir  Thomas 
M  ore's  death,  were  but  the  prelude  to  a  more  fatal  burst  of 
the  royal  displeasure.  The  capricious  monarch  had  bestowed 
his  aiFections  upon  the  Lady  Jane  Seymour,  a  maid  of  honor 
to  his  new  queen,  and  Anna  Boleyn  was  now  to  suffer  by  the 
same  arts  which  she  had  used  to  supplant  her  own  royal 
mistress.  A  few  months  after  the  unhappy  Katherine  of 
Arragon  had  breathed  her  last,  amid  the  solitude  and  deser- 
tion  of  Kimbolton,  Queen  Anna  Boleyn  was  arrested 

1536«  ^  ^  ^ 

on  the  accusation  of  being  unfaithful  to  the  king. 
She  was  tried,  and  though  the  charges  brought  against  her 
were  not  proved,  she  was  declared  guilty,  and  received  sen- 
tence of  death. 

Under  an  oak-tree  in  Greenwich  Park,  the  monarch  impa- 
tiently awaited  the  execution.  AVhen  the  booming  of  the 
Tower  gun  told  him  that  the  axe  of  the  executioner  had 
ftillen  on  the  neck  of  his  beautiful  and  unhappy  queen, 
Henry  exclaimed :  ''  The  business  is  done :  uncouple  the 
dogs  and  let  us  follow  the  sport  V  And  thus,  attended  by 
all  the  excitement  of  the  chase,  he  went  to  Wolf  Hall,  in 
Wiltshire,  and  the  next  day  brought  thence,  as  his  bride,  the 
new  queen,  Jane  Seymour.  Anna  Boleyn  left  one  child,  the 
Princess  Elizabeth. 

Henry,  by  declaring  himself  "  Head  of  the  Church,"  had 
put  an  end  to  the  papal  power  in  England,  which  was  of  itself 
a  great  step  towards  the  Reformation.  The  motives  of  the 
king  in  this  work  were  too  selfish  and  sordid,  however,  for 
the  establishment  of  a  pure  and  Protestant  Church  in  his 
dominions.  Romanist  and  Protestant  suffered  alike  in  his 
reign.  At  the  same  stake  perished  one  who  denied  the 
doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  and  another  who  denied  the 
king's  supremacy.     To  obtain  the  wealth  contained  therein, 


HENRY  VIII.  193 

hundreds  of  abbeys,  monasteries,  and  religious  houses  were 
put  down,  and  monks  and  nuns  turned  adrift  upon  the  world. 

These  houses  were  not  alone  the  '-cages  of  unclean  birds,'* 
as  their  destroyers  called  them.  They  had  been  also  the 
refuge  for  the  persecuted,  and  had  served  as  hospitals  for  the 
poor.  They  had  been,  in  many  a  wild  district,  "inns  for  the 
wayfaring  man,  who  heard  from  afar  the  sound  of  the  vesper- 
bell,  inviting  at  once  to  repose  and  devotion."  They  had 
given  employment  to  hundreds,  who  had  tilled  the  abbey  or 
glebe  lands,  or  tended  the  large  flocks  and  herds  belonging  to 
the  monasteries.  They  were  also  the  repositories  of  learning 
and  the  fine  arts,  containing  many  a  valued  library,  beautiful 
painting,  statuary,  and  sculpture.  When  Henry,  in 
one  year,  suppressed  three  hundred  and  seventy-six 
monasteries,  an  insurrection  followed,  which  was  especially 
violent  in  the  north  of  England. 

The  Duke  of  Norfolk  was  sent  against  the  insurgents,  but 
*'  not  until  the  pleasant  banks  of  the  Tweed,  the  Tyne,  the 
Tees,  the  Don,  and  the  Trent,  were  loathsome  with  the 
number  of  ghastly  heads  and  reeking  members,  was  a  pardon 
proclaimed."  The  king  then  accused  many  of  the  richer 
priories  and  abbeys  of  having  aided  this  rebellion,  and  they 
too  fell  a  prey  to  his  rapacity.  The  most  magnificent  shrines 
in  the  kingdom  were  despoiled.  Even  the  tomb  of  Thomas  k 
Becket,  so  long  the  favorite  saint  of  England,  and  the  famous 
shrine  of  Our  Lady  at  Walsingham,  to  which  Henry,  when  a 
child,  had  once  made  a  pilgrimage  barefoot,  and  presented 
a  costly  necklace,  were  now  robbed  of  their  rich,  time-honored 
treasures. 

Cranmer,  who  had  been  made  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
did  all  that  he  could,  under  such  an  uncertain  and  despotic 
master,  to  further  the  real  work  of  the  Reformation.  He 
caused  an  English  translation  of  the  Bible  to  be  placed  in 
every  parish  church,  and  the  priests  were  commanded  to 
expound  the  Scriptures  to  the  people  in  plain  English. 
Cranmer  had  married  the  niece  of  Osiander,  a  Protestant 
17  N 


194  HISTORY    OP   ENGLAND. 

pastor  of  Nurembiirg.  He  was  obliged  to  conceal  this  mar- 
riage, as  his  royal  master  still  held  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
cehbacy  of  the  clergy ;  and  at  one  time  he  was  compelled  to 
s§nd  his  wife  and  children  back  to  Germany. 

In  the  year  1537,  a  few  days  after  the  birth  of  her  son, 
Prince  Edward,  the  queen,  Jane  Seymour,  died.  The  king 
now  made  proposals  of  marriage  to  various  foreign  princesses. 
One  of  these,  the  Duchess  of  Milan,  is  said  to  have  replied  to 
the  addresses  of  the  royal  Blue-Beard,  that  "  if  she  had  two 
heads,  one  would  have  been  at  the  service  of  his  majesty  of 
England."  His  minister,  Cromwell,  Earl  of  Essex,  being  a 
promoter  of  the  cause  of  the  Reformation,  was  anxious  to 
have  Henry  marry  a  Protestant  princess  of  Germany.  He 
procured  a  likeness  of  x\nne.  Duchess  of  Cleves,  painted  by 
Hans  Holbein,  a  very  celebrated  Dutch  painter,  and  presented 
it  to  the  king.  Henry  was  much  pleased  with  the  picture, 
and  consented  to  the  marriage ;  but  when  he  saw  the 
original,  he  was  so  much  displeased,  that  he  did  not 
rest  until  he  had  procured  a  divorce.  Anne  of  Cleves,  who 
seems  to  have  been  a  good  and  prudent  woman,  was  no  doubt 
glad  to  resign  her  queenship  without  the  loss  of  her  head. 
Cromwell,  the  unfortunate  adviser  of  this  match,  perished  on 
the  scaffold,  having  been  trieS  on  a  charge  of  treason  and 
heresy. 

Henry  VIII.  now  married  Katherine  Howard,  a 
grand-niece  of  the  victor  of  Flodden  Field.  This 
marriage  proved  an  unhappy  one.  In  less  than  two  years  the 
queen  was  tried  on  charges  similar  to  those  brought  against 
Anna  Boleyn.  She  was  condemned  to  die,  and  meekly 
suffered  the  sentence. 

Ever  since  the  battle  of  Flodden  Field,  there  had  been  no 
real  peace  between  England  and  Scotland.  In  the  year 
1541,  Henry,  fearing  that  his  nephew,  James  V.,  was  making 
foreign  alliances  which  would  strengthen  him  against  England, 
proposed  an  interview  at  York.  The  English  king  went  at 
the  time  appointed,  but  James,  being  detained  by  his  courtiers, 
was  not  there.     This  insult  so  irritated  Henry,  that  he  forth- 


HENRY  vrir.  195 

with  declared  war  against  Scotland.  In  1542,  the  battle  of 
Solway  Moss  was  fought,  in  which  the  Scots  were  severely 
defeated,  and  tlieir  king  died  of  a  broken  heart  a  few  days 
after.  About  a  week  previous  to  his  death  occurred  the  birth 
of  his  daughter, — the  unfortunate  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots. 
Henry  VIII.  proposed  peace  to  the  Scots,  on  condition  that 
this  infant  princess  should  be  betrothed  to  his  son,  the  young 
Edward.  This  union  would  have  brought  peace  to  the  two 
countries  by  uniting  them  under  one  rule.  Henry,  however, 
showed  so  evidently  that  during  the  minority  of  the  princess 
he  meant  to  hold  the  power  in  his  own  hands,  that  the  Scots 
were  averse  to  the  treaty,  and  the  war  still  went  on. 

Henry's  sixth  and  last  wife  was  Lady  Katherine  Parr,  the 
widow  of  Lord  Latimer.  She  was  an  English  woman  and  a 
Protestant,  and  to  the  three  children  of  Henry — Mary,  Eliza- 
beth, and  Edward — she  proved  a  good  and  judicious  mother. 
'J  his  queen  narrowly  escaped  being  arrested  on  charge  of 
heresy.  Having  read  some  of  the  books  of  the  reformers, 
which  were  prohibited,  she  one  evening  disputed  with  the 
king  on  a  point  of  religious  belief.  Henry,  greatly  exaspe- 
rated, gave  the  order  for  her  arrest,  but  she,  seeing  her 
danger,  expressed  to  him,  the  next  evening,  her  sense  of  the 
blessing  she  possessed  in  having  so  learned  a  prince  for  her 
husband  and  instructor.  "  Not  so,"  said  the  king,  "  I  know 
you,  Kate,  you  are  become  a  doctor;"  whereupon  she  replied 
that  he  had  mistaken  her  motive  in  arguing  with  him — it  was 
merely  to  amuse  him,  and  induce  him  to  forget  his  bodily 
sufferings.  "Ah!  is  it  so,  sweetheart !  then  we  are  friends 
again!"  replied  Henry;  and  when  the  chancellor  came  to 
arrest  the  queen,  he  was  driven  from  the  presence  with  abu- 
sive epithets. 

In  1544,  Henry  engaged  in  a  war  against  France.  He 
condu-cted  his  troops  in  person,  and  laid  siege  to  the  town  of 
Boulogne.  Immense  sums  were  lavished  in  this  brief  and 
mismanaged  war.  In  less  than  two  years,  Henry  was  obliged 
to  make  peace,  and  agree  to  the  surrender  of  Boulogne,  on 


196  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

the  payment  of  certain    sums   of  money  promised   by  the 
French  king. 

Henry's  hatred  against  every  scion  of  the  house  of  Planta- 
genet  was  implacable.     In  the  early  part  of  his  reign  he  had 
put  to  death  Edward  Stafford,  Duke  of  Buckingham,  a  de- 
scendant of  Edward  III.     Later,  the  Countess  of  Salisbury,  a 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  and  niece  of  Edward  IV., 
had  fallen  a  sacrifice  to  his  cruel  jealousy.     Accused  of  cor- 
responding with  her  son,  a  Romish  cardinal,  she  was  thrown 
into  prison  at  the  age  of  seventy,  and  afterwards  beheaded. 
She  was  imprisoned  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Kathe- 
rine  Howard,  and  one  of  the  few  traces  which  remain 
of  the  character  of  that  unfortunate  lady,  is  an  order  which 
she  gave  for  furred  mantles  and  warm  clothing  for  this  aged 
countess,  the  last  of  the  Plantagenets,  who  lay,  during  the 
winter's  cold,  a  prisoner  in  the  dungeons  of  the  Tower.     The 
closing  year  of  Henry's  reign  was  marked  by  the 
attainder  of  the  noble  family  of  the  Howards,  in  the 
persons  of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk  and  his  brave  and  accom- 
plished son  the  Earl  of  Surrey. 

Henry  Howard,  Earl  of  Surrey,  was  accused  of  treason,  for 
having  borne  the  arms  of  Edward  the  Confessor  quartered^  on 
his  shield  with  his  own.  On  this  frivolous  charge  he  was 
condemned  to  the  block.  A  few  days  after  the  execution  of 
the  lamented  Surrey,  the  order  went  forth  from  the  king  for 
that  of  his  aged  father,  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  but  ere 

1547.  .    ^  '  .    ' 

the  morning  of  the  day  of  the  execution  came, 
Henry  VIII.  had  gone  to  his  account.  He  died  the  28th 
January,  1547. 

Questions. — On  whom  was  the  great  seal  bestowed  after  it  was 
taken  from  Wolsey  ? — Describe  the  home  attractions  which  Sir  Tho- 
mas More  was  loth  to  relinquish — What  can  you  say  of  his  cha- 
racter as  chancellor? — What  conduct  of  the  king  did  Sir  Thomas 
More  oppose  ? — What  course  did  he  therefore  adopt  ? — Whom  did 
the  king  marry  in  1532  ? — What  became  of  the  divorced  queen? 

When  and  by  what  act  was  the  power  of  the  Pope  in  England 
overthrown  ? — What  was  now  required  of  English  subjects  ? — Who 


EDWARD  VI.  197 

refused  this  ? — Describe  the  treatment  of  Sir  Thomas  More  in  conse- 
quence of  this  refusal. — What  impression  was  made  thi'oughout  Eu- 
rope by  this  treatment? — Relate  the  emotion  of  the  king  upon  this 
occasion. — Describe  the  downfall  of  Anna  Boleyn. 

What  important  step  towards  the  Reformation  was  accomplished 
by  Henry  ? — Describe  Henry's  inconsistent  conduct  with  regard  to 
religion. — What  good  purposes  had  the  religious  houses  served? — 
What  was  Henry's  treatment  of  these  institutions  ? — Describe  Cran- 
mer's  labors  in  the  cause  of  the  Reformation. — What  events  occurred 
in  the  royal  household  in  1537? — Who  was  Henry  VIII. 's  fifth  wife? 
— Relate  the  brief  history  of  this  marriage. 

Give  some  account  of  the  relations  between  England  and  Scotland 
at  this  time. — Mention  the  results  of  the  battle  of  Solway  Moss. — 
On  what  terms  did  Henry  offer  peace  to  Scotland? — What  dispo- 
sition on  the  part  of  Henry  prevented  the  Scots  accepting  the 
treaty? — Whom  did  Henry  marry  for  his  sixth  and  last  wife? — 
What  danger  did  she  narrowly  escape? — Relate  the  circumstance. — 
In  what  war  did  Henry  engage  towards  the  close  of  his  reign? — 
When  was  peace  made  ? — Mention  the  several  victims  of  Henry's 
jealousy  and  their  fate. — What  family  fell  under  the  king's  displea- 
sure during  the  later  years  of  his  reign? — What  charge  was  brought 
against  the  Earl  of  Surrey  ? — What  was  his  sentence  ? 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 

EDWARD    Vr. 


THE    PROTECTOR  —  INTRIGUES  —  REFORMATION  —  SOMERSETS    DOWNFALL — 
NORTHUMBERLAND'S    SCHEMES. 

It  was  not  alone  the  tyranny  of  Henry  VIII.  which  had 

led  to  the  downfall  of  the  Howards.     The  Seymours, 

who  had   risen   into  importance  after  their  sister's 

marriage  with   the  king,  were  jealous   of  this  ancient  and 

noble    house.       The    Howards    were    Roman    Catholics,    the 

Seymours  favored  the  Reformation.     The  latter  feared  lest 

their  influence  with  the  young  prince,  their  nephew,  should 

be  overrulod,  and  their  measures  thwarted,  when  he  became 

17* 


198  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

king,  by  the  Duke  of  Norfolk  and  Earl  Surrey.  They,  there- 
fore, had  inflamed  the  mind  of  King  Henry  against  them. 
But  we  shall  see  that  *'  in  the  net  which  they  spread  for 
others,  their  own  feet  were  taken." 

Prince  Edward  being  only  ten  years  old  at  the  time  of  his 
father's  death,  a  council  of  regency  was  appointed.  At  its 
first  meeting,  Seymour,  Earl  of  Hertford,  was  created  Duke 
of  Somerset,  made  Protector  of  the  kingdom,  and  immediately 
took  the  management  of  the  realm  into  his  own  hands. 

One  of  the  dying  injunctions  of  Henry  VIII.  to  the  council 
was,  that  they  should  endeavor,  by  all  means,  to  bring  about 
a  marriage  between  Edward  VI.  and  the  young  queen  of 
Scots.  This  Somerset  tried  to  effect;  but  a  large  party  in 
Scotland,  headed  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Earl  of  Arran,  and 
the  queen  mother,  Mary  of  Guise,  violently  opposed  the 
union.  The  Duke  of  Somerset  marched  a  large  army  into 
Scotland,  hoping  to  compel  the  opposing  party,  who  were 
aided  by  the  king  of  France,  to  compliance.  He  gained  a 
decided  victory  near  Edinburgh,  but,  influenced  by  personal 
interests,  returned  to  England  without  following  up  his  advan- 
tages. Several  years  later,  the  Scots,  who  declared  "  they 
liked  not  \he  manner  of  the  English  wooing,"  sent  their 
young  queen  to  France,  where  she  became  the  wife  of 
Francis  It.  afterwards  king  of  that  country, 

Thomas  Seymour,  who  had  been  created  lord  high  admiral, 
was  an  ambitious  man,  and  soon  became  jealous  of  the  power 
and  honors  which  his  brother,  the  Protector,  had  obtained. 
He  took  advantage  of  Somerset's  absence  in  Scotland  to  sup- 
plant his  influence  with  the  young  king.  This  Seymour  could 
the  more  readily  accomplish,  having  married  Katherine  Parr, 
the  widow  of  the  late  monarch.  After  the  death  of  this  lady, 
Seymour  was  suspected  of  aspiring  to  the  hand  of  the  Prin- 
cess Elizabeth.  This  led  to  an  open  quarrel  between  the  two 
brothers.  The  admiral  was  arrested,  tried  on  a  charge  of  high 
treason,  and  beheaded. 

The  Reformation  of  the  church  of  England  was  fairly 
established  during  this  reign,  by  the  united  efforts  of  the 


EDWARD    VI.  199 

king,  the  protector,  and  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  A 
liturgy  was  compiled  by  the  latter;  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass 
gave  place  to  the  communion  service;  and  every  parish 
church  was  ordered  to  provide  itself  with  a  copy  of  the 
English  Bible.  The  best  preachers  of  the  reformed  doctrines 
were  sent  throughout  the  kingdom  to  instruct  the  people,  and 
a  set  of  injunctions  was  drawn  up  containing  the  proper 
doctrines  to  be  preached  and  received,  and  whoever  refused 
them  was  threatened  with  punishment. 

The  breaking  up  of  the  religious  houses,  and  the  turning 
of  land  into  enclosures  for  pasturage,  had  thrown  upon  Eng- 
land a  large  class  of  poor,  who  could  obtain  no  work.  They 
charged  these  evils  to  the  abolishing  of  the  old  religion. 
Large  bodies  of  men  rose  in  rebellion,  demanding  the  restora- 
tion of  Romanism  and  the  breaking  down  of  enclosures. 
Scarcely  a  county  in  England  was  free  from  these  insurrec- 
tions, but  they  continued  longest  and  with  greatest 
violence  in  Norfolk.  At  length  the  Duke  of  War- 
wick, with  an  army  of  six  thousand  men,  marched  into  that 
county,  and,  after  a  bloody  victory,  succeeded  in  quelling  the 
disturbances. 

The  execution  of  his  brother  had  not  rendered  Somerset's 
position  more  secure.  He  was  exceedingly  vain,  and  the 
honors  and  titles  which  he  heaped  upon  himself,  together 
with  his  inefficiency  in  the  management  of  the  government, 
procured  him  enemies.  He  built  a  very  splendid  and  costly 
mansion  named  from  himself,  Somerset  House,  and  was 
accused  of  spending  upon  his  own  luxuries  those  sums  which 
should  have  been  appropriated  for  the  expenses  of- the  king- 
dom. His  enemies  were  headed  by  Robert  Dudley,  Earl  of 
Warwick,  who,  since  his  victory  over  the  rebels,  had  gained 
great  influence  with  the  nation,  and  now  aspired  to  supreme 
authority. 

Somerset  was  accused  of  treasons  and  misdemeanors,  de- 
prived of  the  protectorship,  and  thrown  into  the  Tower. 
Warwick  was  then  made  Earl  of  Northumberland,  and  exer- 
cised entire  control  over  the  mind  of  the  king.     Somerset 


200  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

was  afterwards  restored  to  his  place  in  the  council ; 

1550.  ^    ,  ' 

but,  being  suspected  of  attempting  to  regain  his 
former  position,  he  was  tried  for  treason,  and  beheaded  in 
January,  1552. 

The  religion  of  his  half-sister^  Mary,  was  a  source  of  great 
anxiety  to  the  young  king.  She  was  a  zealous  Koman 
Catholic,  and  insisted  upon  having  the  mass  performed  by 
her  chaplains.  Every  effort  was  made  to  induce  her  to 
change  her  faith,  but  without  avail,  and  nothing  but  the  fear 
of  a  war  with  the  German  emperor,  who  protected  Mary  in 
her  religion,  prevented  the  English  parliament  from  forcing 
her  to  abandon  even  the  most  private  observance  of  the  rites 
of  the  church  of  Rome. 

The   health   of  Edward  was    now  fast  declinine;. 

1553.  .  ° 

Guilford  Dudley,  a  son  of  the  Earl  of  Northumber- 
land, had  married  the  Lady  Jane  Grey.  She  was  a  Protest- 
ant, and,  through  her  mother,  a  descendant  of  Henry  VII. 
Using  his  influence  with  the  king,  Northumberland  urged 
Edward  to  deprive  his  half-sisters,  Mary  and  Elizabeth,  of 

their  inheritance,  and  to  name  his  Protestant  cousin, 

1553.  '  .  ' 

the  Lady  Jane  Grey,  his  lawful  successor  to  the 
throne.  Edward  wa,s  willing  to  exclude  Mary,  for,  she  being 
a  Roman  Catholic,  he  feared  the  effect  of  her  elevation  upon 
the  reformed  religion ;  but  he  was  reluctant  to  deprive  Eliza- 
beth of  the  succession.  At  length,  a  few  days  before  his 
death,  the  king  was  induced  to  sign  a  paper,  bequeathing  his 
crown  to  the  Lady  Jane  Grey ; — a  will  which  secured  nothing 
to  the  guilty  planners  of  it  but  disgrace  and  ruin,  and  brought 
an  innocent  and  beautiful  young  victim  to  the  block^ 

Questions. — What  family  had  risen  to  power  during  Henry  VIII.'s 
reign? — Who  was  made  Protector  of  the  kingdom? — What  injunc- 
tion had  Henry  left  to  his  council? — What  party  in  Scotland  opposed 
this  union? — Describe  Somerset's  efforts  to  force  the  Scots  into  com- 
pliance.— What  jealousy  displayed  itself  in  the  family  of  the  Pro- 
tector?— By  what  means  did  Seymour  endeavor  to  supplant  his 
brother? — What  was  the  result? 

Describe  the  progress  made  during  this  reign  in  the  Protestant 


QUEEN    MARY.  201 

Reformation. — To  what  did  the  poor  ascribe  the  evils  which  they 
suffered  ? — What  measures  did  tlicy  take  to  procure  redress  ? — With 
what  result  ? 

What  conduct  on  the  part  of  the  Protector  raised  up  enemies  ? — 
What  was  the  aim  of  Warwick  ? — What  was  the  result  of  these  plot- 
tings  against  Somerset  ? — Relate  Somerset's  subsequent  history. — 
Describe  Mary's  conduct  with  regard  to  her  religion. — Relate  North- 
umberland's schemes  for  securing  the  crown  to  his  own  family. — 
How  far  was  Edward  willing  to  lend  himself  to  these  designs? — 
What  was  his  final  action  in  the  matter? 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

QUEEN    MARY. 

LADY  JANE  GREY — CHARACTER  OP  THE  QUEEN — RESTORATION  OF  ROMAN- 
ISM— THE  queen's  marriage  AND  ITS  CONSEQUENCES — PROTESTANT 
MARTYRS — LOSS  OP  CALAIS. 

On  the  death  of  the  young  king,  the  situation  of  the  two 
princesses,  Mary  and  Elizabeth,  was  perilous  in  the 
extreme.  The  Earl  of  Northumberland,  a  few  days 
previous  to  the  death  of  their  brother,  had  summoned  them 
both  to  court.  Mary,  aware  of  the  ambitious  earl's  designs, 
made  no  haste  in  her  journey,  and  learning  the  king's  death, 
on  her  route  towards  London,  turned  aside  and  went  to  one 
of  her  castles  on  the  coast  of  Suffolk.  Elizabeth,  warned  by 
her  friend.  Sir  William  Cecil,  did  not  obey.the  summons. 

Among  the  people  of  England,  whether  Protestant  or 
Roman  Catholic,  a  strong  feeling  of  hereditary  right  prevailed. 
Therefore,  although  a  large  portion  of  the  nation  rather  feared 
Mary's  accession,  on  account  of  her  religion,  their  sense  of 
right  overcame  their  fears,  and  notwithstanding  all  the  plot- 
tings  of  the  ambitious  Northumberland,  he  was  unable  to 
Secure  the  crown  to  his  daughter-in-law. 

Lady  Jane  Grey  had  no  desire  to  leave  the  charms  of  her 
happy  domestic  life,  for  the  perils  of  a  throne,  but  her  gentle 


202  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

pleadings  had  no  effect  upon  her  aspiring  t'ather-in-law.  For 
ten  joyless  days,  a  few  of  the  people  called  her  queen ;  then, 
Mary's  right  prevailed,  and  the  Lady  Jane,  with  her  young 
husband,  exchanged  a  throne  for  the  dismal  dungeons  of  the 
Tower.  The  Duke  of  Northumberland  was  beheaded,  and  his 
body  interred  by  the  side  of  his  own  victim,  the  Duke  of 
Somerset.  "  Before  the  high  altar,  in  St.  Peter's  Chapel,  in 
the  Tower,  lay  two  headless  dukes  between  two  headless 
queens :  the  Dukes  of  Northumberland  and  Somerset  between 
Queens  Anna  Boleyn  and  Katherine  Howard." 

The  Princess  Mary  was  thirty-seven  years  of  age  when  she 
came  to  fhe  throne.  Those  thirty-seven  years  had  been  a 
period  of  gloom  and  terror  to  the  unhappy  daughter  of  Kathe- 
rine of  Arragon.  The  wrongs  which  the  mother  had  suffered 
the  daughter  never  forgot.  Mary  was  devoted  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith,  and  reigned  only  to  restore  her  kingdom  to  the 
communion  of  what  she  considered  the  true  church.  The 
life  of  fear  and  persecution  which  she  had  led,  had  weakened 
her  constitution  and  soured  her  temper.  We  shall  not  be 
surprised  then  to  find  her  reign  fruitful  of  those  persecutions 
which  have  led  Protestants  to  name  it  the  reign  of  the  Bloody 
Queen  Mary.  The  Roman  Catholic  religion  was  at  once 
restored.  All  the  property  of  religious  houses  which  had 
been  retained  by  the  crown,  was  given  back  to  the  church 
by  this  bigoted  but  conscientious  queen.  She  would  fain 
have  compelled  her  nobles  to  the  same  sacrifices,  but  was 
advised  that  it  would  be  impossible.  Parliament  was  opened 
by  the  celebration  of  high  mass,  one  bishop  alone  (Taylor  of 
Lincoln)  refusing  to  kneel  at  the  elevation  of  the  host?  The 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  was  declared  to  be  an  abomination. 
The  famous  pulpit  at  Paul's  Cross  was  filled  by  Romish 
preachers,  whilst  numbers  of  Protestant  clergymen  were  sent 
to  prison. 

Archbishop  Cranmer,  who  had  so  greatly  aided  Henry  in 
procuring  the  divorce  from  her  mother,  was  one  of  Mary's 
first  objects  of  displeasure.  He  was  sent  a  prisoner  to  the 
Tower.     In  the  year  1554,  a  marriage  was  arranged  between 


QUEEN    MARY.  203 

the  queen  and  King  Philip  of  Spain.  This  match  was  very 
agreeable  to  Mary,  from  Philip's  known  devotion  to  the 
church  of  Rome.  For  that  very  reason,  however,  it  was 
hateful  to  the  English  people.  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt,  a  noble- 
man who  had  travelled  in  Spain,  and  knew  the  harsh  bigotry 
of  the  Spanish  king,  headed  a  rebellion  in  Kent.  Other 
pafts  »f  England  rose  in  arms,  and  the  friends  of  the  poor 
captive  in  the  Tower,  Lady  Jane  Grey,  took  part  in  these 
disturbances.  Mary  was  induced  to  believe  that  the  life  of 
Lady  Jane  was  injurious  to  her  own  safety,  and  so  this  young, 
beautiful,   and  accomplished  woman  laid   her  head 

1554.  '  .  ^ 

upon  the  block,  an  innocent  victim  to  the  crimes  of 
Others.  Her  husband  was  beheaded  a  few  hours  before  her 
own  death.  Wyatt's  rebellion  was  put  down,  himself  with 
many  others  suffering  on  the  scaffold. 

Philip  came  to  England  and  married  Mary.  He  remained 
in  the  country  but  a  short  time;  his  departure  being  regretted 
by  his  wife  only,  whose  affection,  however,  he  returned  with 
coldness  and  dislike.  Mary  was  extremely  anxious  that  her 
kingdom  should  be  restored  to  the  communion  of  Rome.  It 
was  therefore  with  great  joy  that  she  received  Cardinal  Pole, 
the  Pope's  legate,  who  pronounced  full  absolution  upon  the 
parliament  and  realm  of  England,  and  received  them  again 
into  the  bosom  of  the  Roman  church.  This  restoration  to 
the  old  religion  was  celebrated  by  the  persecution  of  the 
Protestants.  The  first  for  whom  the  fires  of  Smithfield  were 
lighted  was  John  Rogers,  one  of  the  clergy  of  St.  Paul's. 
Among  the  most  prominent  who  suffered  at  this  time  were 
Hugh  Latimer,  bishop  of  Worcester,  and  Thomas  Ridley, 
bishop  of  London.  They  were  both  burned  on  the  same  day, 
at  Oxford,  opposite  Baliol  College.  Ridley  reached  the  spot 
first.  Latimer,  being  an  old  man,  came  more  slowly.  Ridley 
ran  to  meet  him,  and  embracing  him,  said :  "  Be  of  good 
cheer,  brother,  for  God  will  either  assuage  the  fury  of  the 
flame,  or  strengthen  us  to  bear  it."  The  noble  old  man 
returned  these  words  of  godly  cheer,  when,  as  they  were 
chaining   him    to   the   stake,   he   exclaimed    to   his  brother 


204  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

martyr,  at  whose  feet  the  faggots  were  ah-eady  kindled :  "Be 
of  good  comfort,  Master  Ridley,  and  play  the  man ;  we  shall 
this  day  light  such  a  candle,  by  God's  grace,  in  England,  as  I 
trust  shall  never  be  put  out."  Never  were  words  more  pro- 
phetic. Another  Protestant  martyr  of  these  days  was  Dr. 
Rowland  Taylor,  the  rector  of  Hadleigh  in  Sussex.  He  was 
the  ancestor  of  the  learned  and  pious  author  of  "  Holy  LivJVig 
and  Dying." 

Archbishop  Cranmer  was  left  in  prison  a  few  months  longer. 
His  had  ever  been  a  timid  character.  During  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIIT.  the  archbishop's  lack  of  moral  courage  had 
manifested  itself  on  several  occasions,  when  he  yielded  both 
opinion  and  principle  to  the  will  of  that  monarch.  But 
Henry's  wrath,  being  equivalent  to  a  death-warrant,  might 
have  intimidated  a  bolder  spirit  than  Cranmer's.  Now,  aged 
and  harassed,  as  he  lay  in  his  prison  at  Oxford,  delusive 
hopes  of  life  and  pardon  were  held  out  to  induce  him  to 
recant,  and  thus  bring  disgrace  upon  himself  and  the  whole 
Protestant  cause.  For  a  time  the  natural  timidity  of  Cran- 
mer's nature  prevailed,  and  he  signed  a  recantation.  His 
enemies  having  now  gained  their  point,  as  they  fondly  be- 
lieved, prepared  for  him  the  martyr's  stake.  Nobly  amid  the 
flames  did  Archbishop  Cranmer  redeem  that  last  moment  of 
weakness.  Holding  out  the  hand  which  had  signed  the 
paper:  "This  hand  has  offended,'^  he  exclaimed,  and  watched 
it  as  it  slowly  shrivelled  in  the  consuming  flames.  His  last 
words  were,  "  Lord  Jesus,  receive  my  spirit."  In  Mary's 
reign,  two  hundred  and  eighty-eight  persons  suffered 

1596« 

at  the  stake. 
During  all  this  time  the  Protestant  Princess  Elizabeth,  by 
the  utmost  prudence,  narrowly  escaped  the  perils  to  which 
her  position  exposed  her.  At  Queen  Mary's  coronation  she 
bore  the  crown.  Whispering  to  the  Count  de  Noailles,  the 
French  ambassador,  that  it  was  heavy,  he  replied :  "  Be 
patient,  it  will  seem  lighter  when  it  is  on  your  own  head." 
Once  she  had  been  led  through  the  Traitor's  Gate  into  the 
Tower,  but  she  was  again  set  free,  and  towards  the  close  of 


QUEEN    MARY.  205 

Mary's  reign,  she  resided  at  the  manor  house  of  Hatfield,  in 
comparative  security,  and  in  friendship  with  her  Koman 
Catholia  sister.  To  obtain  this,  however,  she  was  obhged 
to  have  mass  celebrated  in  her  own  house,  to  embroider 
garments  for  madonnas  and  saints,  and  when  at  court,  to  take 
part  in  the  religious  processions.^ 

In  1557,  King  Philip  came  over  to  England.  His  visit 
rejoiced  his  wife,  but  with  very  little  reason,  for  his  motive  in 
coming  was  purely  selfish.  It  was  to  persuade  the  English 
parliament  to  declare  war  against  France.  Both  the  parlia- 
ment and  council  were  opposed  to  such  a  war.  They  would 
never  have  yielded  to  Philip,  but  that,  fortunately  for  him, 
the   kino;   of  France   at   this   juncture   aided   some 

1557.  .  ^  ,        ''     ,  . 

traitorous  attempts  to  overthrow  the  government  or 
England.  This  fact  enabled  Mary  to  gratify  her  husband,  by 
procuring  the  consent  of  parliament  to  the  sending  over  of  a 
body  of  horse  and  foot  in  aid  of  the  Spanish  king.  The  war 
proved  sadly  disastrous  to  England.  One  town  alone  re- 
mained to  her  of  all  the  dear-bought  conquests  on  the  soil  of 
France.  It  was  Calais.  Most  jealously  had  this  possession 
been  watched  until  the  reign  of  Mary.  But  now  its  defences 
were  weakened,  and  there  was  no  navy  to  protect  it.  The 
Puke  of  Gruise  surprised  the  fortress  in  midwinter, 
and  the  last  stronghold  of  English  power  on  the 
continent  fell  into  his  hands. 

So  greatly^  was  this  loss  felt  by  the  English  queen,  that 
shortly  before  her  death,  when  two  of  her  attendants  asked  if 
her  great  dejection  arose  from  King  Philip's  leaving  her,  she 
replied :  "  Not  that  only,  but  when  I  am  dead  and  opened, 
you  shall  find  Calais  lying  in  my  heart.''  Queen  Mary's 
death  occurred  a  few  months  after  the  loss  which  she  had  so 
greatly  deplored.     She  died  in  November,  1558. 

Questions. — Whose  situation  became  perilous  at  the  king's  death? 

— How  did  they  evade  the  'danger  of  appearing  at  court? — What 

prevented   the   success  of  Northumberland's  designs? — Relate  the 

conduct  and  fate  of  Lady  Jane  Grey. — How  was  Northumberland 

18 


206  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

punished  ?— What  was  Marys  age  at  her  accession  ? — Mention  the 
circumstances  of  her  previous  life  and  character. — What  changes 
now  took  place  in  the  religion  of  the  realm? — How  did  Qranmer 
suflFer,  and  on  what  account  ? 

Describe  the  effect  of  Mary's  marriage  contract  upon  the  nation. — 
In  what  way  did  Wyatt's  rebellion  bring  about  the  death  of  Lady 
Jane  Grey?— What  was  Mary's  chief  anxiety  with  regard  to  her 
kingdom? — Who  was  the  Pope's  legate,  and  how  was  he  received? — 
Who  was  the  first  victim  in  the  persecutions  of  the  Protestants  ?— 
Describe  the  martyrdom  of  Latimer  and  Ridley.— Describe  the  cha- 
racter and  consequent  conduct  of  Cranmer. — Relate  the  noble  evi- 
dence of  repentance  given  by  him  at  the  stake. — How  many  perished 
at  the  stake  during  this  reign  ? 

Describe  the  situation  of  the  Princess  Elizabeth  during  Mary's 
reign. — Mention  the  object  and  result  of  Philip's  visit  to  England  in 
1557. — Describe  the  loss  suffered  by  England  in  this  war. — What 
anecdote  is  given  to  show  how  deeply  Mary  felt  the  loss  of  this 
town  ? — When  did  Mary  die  ? 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 


QUEEN    ELIZABETH. — THE    FIRST    TWENTY-NINE    YEARS    OF 
HER  REIGN. 

HER    ACCESSION  —  POPITLARITY — THE    PROTESTANT    RELIGION   RESTORED — 
MARY    OF    SCOTLAND. 

It  is  said  that  when  one  warned  Anna  Boleyn  of  the  danger 
she  incurred  in  wedding  Henry  VIII.,  she  replied  :  "  I  care 
not  what  becomes  of  me ;  my  children  shall  be  royal."  Truly 
her  words  were  prophetic,  for  never  did  a  sovereign  rule  with 
a  more  royal  sway  than  Elizabeth  of  England,  the  only  child 
of  the  unhappy  Anna  Boleyn. 

When,  on  the  17th  November,  the  accession  of  the 

1558.  '  . 

Princess  Elizabeth  was  made  known,  not  a  smgic 
voice  challenged  her  title,  but  both  houses  rang  with  shouts 
of  *'  G-od  save  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  loug  and  happy  may  she 
reign."     On  the  14th  January,  she  was  received  in  London 


QUEEN   ELIZABETH.  207 

by  the  lord  mayor  and  citizens  with  great  magnificence.  One 
of  the  pageants  prepared  for  the  occasion,  represented 
Time  leading  forth  her  daughter  Truth,  the  latter 
presenting  to  the  queen  an  English  Bible.  In  another  stood 
a  figure  representing  Elizabeth,  with  these  words  written  over 
her  head :  "  Deborah,  the  Judge  and  llestorer  over  the  house 
of  Israel."  These  were  probably  the  first  pageants  of  a  Pro- 
testant character  displayed  in  England. 

Queen  Elizabeth  delighted  the  people  by  her  gracious 
smiles  and  words,  and  by  the  kind  reception  of  their  ofi*erings. 
The  day  after  her  coronation,  a  courtier  presented  a  petition 
to  her  majesty  for  the  release  "  now  in  this  good  time  of  four 
or  five  principal  prisoners  j  these  were  the  four  Evangelists 
and  the  Apostle  St.  Paul,  who  had  been  long  shut  up  in  an 
unknown  tongue,  as  it  were  in  prison,  so  as  they  could  not 
converse  with  the  common  people.'^  This  petition,  together 
with  the  pageants,  prove  that,  notwithstanding  the  perse- 
cutions of  the  late  reign,  there  was  a  strong  feeling  of  Pro- 
testantism in  England.  Elizabeth  proceeded  very  cautiously, 
and  by  degrees,  to  restore  the  Reformed  religion. 

When  the  "  Act  of  Supremacy  and  Uniformity"  was  passed, 
obliging  all  English  subjects  to  acknowledge  the  queen  as 
the  supreme  head  of  the  church,  and  forbidding  any  mode 
of  religious  worship  save  that  prescribed  by  the  church  of 
England,  many  Roman  Catholics  were  subject  to  fines  or  im- 
prisonments. Large  numbers  became  exiles  in  foreign  coun- 
tries, where,  in  after  years,  they  aided  plots  and  conspiracies, 
to  the  no  small  peril  of  the  English  queen. 

Scarcely  was  Elizabeth  seated  on  the  throne,  when  Philip 
of  Spain  sent  ambassadors  to  her  with  ofi'ers  of  marriage. 
The  queen  declined  his  suit,  taking  occasion,  at  the  same 
time,  to  announce  to  parliament  her  intention  to  live  and  die 
a  virgin-queen.  Subsequently,  the  kings  of  Denmark  and 
Sweden,  the  duke  of  Wirtemberg,  the  arch-duke  of  Austria, 
and  other  suitors,  tried  to  shake  her  purpose  and  obtain  her 
hand,  but  she  remained  firm  to  her  determination. 

Elizabeth  surrounded  herself  with  wise  counsellors.     Her 


to 
158T. 


208  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

friend,  Sir  William  Cecil,  who  had  so  ably  advised  and  pro- 
tected her  in  the  perilous  times  of  Mary's  reign,  was  made 
secretary  of  state.  The  government  was  firmly  and  wisely 
administered.  By  economy  the  large  debts  of  the  crown  were 
paid  off.  Supplies  of  arms  were  purchased  from  abroad  5  the 
art  of  making  fire-arms  in  England  was  greatly  improved; 
and  the  navy  was  so  much  increased  that  Elizabeth  won  for 
herself  the  title  of  Queen  of  the  Northern  Seas. 
1559  -^^^^  ^^^^y  ^*  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  whose  misfor- 
tunes will  ever  tempt  posterity  to  doubt  or  to  forget 
the  crimes  which  never  have  been  proved  against  her, 
occupies  a  large  portion  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 

Mary  Stuart  was  the  great-grandchild  of  Henry  VII.,  her 
grandmother  Margaret,  the  eldest  daughter  of  that  monarch, 
having  married  James  IV.,  king  of  Scotland.  By  that  por- 
tion of  the  English  people  who  deemed  Henry  Vlll.'s  mar- 
riage with  Anna  Boleyn  illegal,  and  by  all  the  foreign  Roman 
Catholics,  as  well  as  by  many  of  that  faith  in  England,  Mary 
Stuart  was  considered  the  lawful  heir  to  the  English  throne. 
Her  mother,  Mary  of  Guise,  was  a  Frenchwoman,  and  Mary 
herself  had  been  educated  at  the  French  court.  She  grew 
up  beautiful  and  accomplished,  but  under  influences  that 
would  not  tend  to  make  her  pure  or  high-principled. 

Early  taught  her  claims  to  the  crown  of  England,  she  had, 
even  when  a  child,  quartered  the  English  arms  with  her  own. 
She  married  Francis  the  dauphin  of  France,  and  when,  in 
1559,  he  became  king,  the  youthful  sovereigns  styled  them- 
selves king  and  queen  of  Scotland  and  England  as  well  as 
France.  This  gave  great  provocation  to  Elizabeth,  who,  how- 
ever, before  it  occurred,  had  been  secretly  plotting  with  those 
in  Scotland  who  opposed  their  young  queen,  for  the  kingdom 
was  rent  by  two  religious  parties — the  Roman  Catholics,  who 
were  supported  by  France,  and  the  Protestants,  headed  by 
several  powerful  nobles,  but  chiefly  controlled  by  John  Knox, 
the  famous  Scotch  reformer. 

In  the  year  1560,  Francis  II.  died,  and  Mary  returned  to 
her  native  kingdom.     Surely  never  had  an  hereditary  queen 


QUEEN    ELIZABETH.  209 

departed  from  a  foreign  land  to  take  possession  of  her  native 
realm,  with  so  heavy  a  heart  as  that  with  which  the  young 
and  beautiful  Mary  Stuart  parted  from  the  shores  of  France. 
*'  Farewell,  dear  France — I  shall  never  see  thee  more  I"  she 
sadly  exclaimed,  as  with  tearful  eyes  she  gazed  from 
her  vessel  upon  the  fast^receding  shore.  The  nobles 
of  Scotland  had  made  but  few  preparations  to  do  honor  to 
their  young  queen ;  and  when  she  saw  the  miserable  ponies, 
with  bare  wooden  saddles,  and  wretched  trappings,  which  were 
to  convey  her  and  her  court  to  the  gloomy  palace  of  Holy- 
rood,  the  young  royal  widow  drew  a  painful  contrast  between 
her  present  position  and  her  past  magnificence  at  the  gay  and 
elegant  court  of  France.  One  thing  alone  cheered  her  droop- 
ing spirits^ — the  enthusiasm  with  which  the  common  people 
welcomed  this  beautiful  descendant  of  their  ancient  kings 
She  showed  her  appreciation  of  their  affection,  by  enduring 
a  serenade  from  two  or  three  hundred  violinists,  who  played 
all  night  beneath  her  windows. 

Mary's  religion  was  a  subject  of  opposition  from  the  first 
moment  of  her  landing.  The  very  pageants,  meagre  as  they 
were,  which  were  arranged  professedly  to  do  honor  to  the  new 
queen,  were  such  as  insulted  the  faith  in  which  she  had  been 
trained.  The  destruction  of  Korah,  Dathan,  and  Abiram, 
who,  as  idolaters,  were  made  to  stand  for  the  whole  Romish 
priesthood,  was  one  of  these  exhibitions.  John  Knox,  the 
uncompromising  reformer,  who  declared  that  "  to  import  one 
mass  into  the  kingdom  of  Scotland,  would  be  more  fatal  than 
to  bring  over  a  foreign  army  of  ten  thousand  men/^  was  par- 
ticularly harsh  towards  his  young  queen. 

His  arguments  against  her  religion,  not  one  of  which  was 
she  in  the  least  prepared  to  understand,  were  urged  in  so  stern 
a  manner  by  this  man  "  who  never  feared  the  face  of  clay," 
that  they  only  disposed  her  to  cling  the  more  tenaciously  to 
the  faith  in  which  she  had  been  educated. 

The  Scots  were  anxious  for  the  marriyge  of  their  queen ; 
and  as  all  the  eligible  matches  with  princes  on  the  continent 
were  objected  to  on  account  of  their  being  Roman  Catholics, 
18*  O 


210  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

Mary  consulted  Elizabeth  of  England  on  the  subject.  The 
English  queen  proposed  those  whom  she  knew  Mary  would 
not  accept ;  and  then,  when  the  queen  of  Scots,  seeing 
that  her  sister  of  England  was  trifling  with  her,  chose 
for  herself,  and  married  her  cousin,  Henry,  Lord  Darnley, 
Elizabeth  affected  the  greatest  displeasure!  The  Protestant 
party  opposed  to  the  Scottish  queen  were  aided  by  the  money 
and  countenance  of  England.  This  party  inspired  the  weak 
mind  of  Darnley  with  the  desire  of  taking  the  government 
into  his  own  hands,  and  made  him  jealous  of  his  queen. 
Mary  had  among  her  servants  an  Italian  musician  named 
David  Rizzio,  whom  she  employed  as  her  secretary.  Against 
this  man  Darnley  and  his  abettors  conceived  a  violent  hatred ; 
and,  one  evening,  whilst  Mary  was  supping  at  Holyrood 
Palace,  in  the  presence  of  several  members  of  her  court, 
Darnley,  Lord  Ruthven,  and  others,  entered  and  murdered 
the  unhappy  Rizzio  before  her  eyes. 

On  the  19th  June,  1566,  was  born  Mary's  first  and  only 
child,  a  son  named  James,  afterwards  James  I.  of  England. 

On  the  night  preceding  the  10th  of  February  of  the  follow- 
ing year,  Darnley,  who  was  recovering  from  an  attack  of  small- 
pox, was  lodging  at  a  house  in  the  suburbs  of  Edinburgh, 
called  the  Kirk-a-Field.  It  was  selected  by  the  queen's  phy- 
sician, who  deemed  it  dangerous  to  have  his  patient  quartered 
within  the  crowded  precincts  of  the  palace.  The  queen,  ac- 
companied by  a  party  of  her  nobles,  passed  the  evening  at 
her  husband's  lodfj^in^s.     A  few  hours  after  their  de- 

1567« 

parture,  the  town  was  shaken  by  a  violent  explosion 
of  gunpowder.  The  Kirk-a-Field  had  been  blown  up,  and 
in  the  garden  was  found  the  body  of  Darnley,  lifeless,  but 
with  no  marks  of  violence  upon  it.  The  Earl  of  Bothwell,  an 
enemy  of  Darnley,  and  one  who  had  gained  the  favor  of  the 
queen,  was  at  once  accused  of  the  murder ;  nor  was  it  long 
before  Mary  herself  was  implicated  in  this  charge  of  guilt. 

Two  months  after  this  event,  as  Queen  Mary  was  returning 
from  Stirling  Castle,  she  was  waylaid  by  the  Earl  of  Both- 
well,  with  a  thousand  armed  retainers,  and  carried  a  prisoner 


QUEEN    ELIZABETH.  211 

to  the  Castle  of  Dunbar.  For  five  days  she  remained  a  cap- 
tive, during  which  time  the  Earl  Bothweil  persuaded  her  to 
promise  to  marry  him.  This  marriage  was  celebrated  a  month 
later,  with  little  or  no  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  nobles. 
The  queen  afterwards  justly  complained  that,  when  a  captive 
in  Dunbar  Castle,  "not  a  sword  was  drawn  for  her  relief;  but 
after  their  marriage,  a  thousand  swords  flew  from  their  scab- 
bards to  drive  Bothweil  from  the  country  and  herself  from 
the  throne.^'  These  words  contain,  indeed,  the  history  of 
subsequent  events.  Bothweil  fled  to  Norway,  and,  after  eight 
years'  captivity,  died  a  maniac  in  the  Danish  castle  of  Malmoe. 
The  queen,  after  a  vain  attempt  to  oppose  her  enemies,  fell 
into  their  hands. 

On  an  islet  in  Loch-Leven,  at  the  base  of  the  Lomond 
Hills,  stands  the  ruins  of  a  castle.  In  the  sixteenth  century 
it  was  strong  and  well  fortified,  and  within  its  high  and 
gloomy  walls  the  queen  of  Scots  entered  upon  those  long 
years  of  weary  captivity  which  made  hfe  bitter  to  her.  Whilst 
a  prisoner,  Mary  was  forced  to  sign  a  paper,  resigning  her 
claim  to  the  throne  in  favor  of  her  infant  son,  James,  and 
yielding  the  government  of  her  kingdom  into  the  hands  of 
the  Earl  Murray,  as  regent.  Beyond  the  confines  of  her 
wave-guarded  prison,  Mary  had  a  few  warm  and  bold  friends, 
and  she  resolved  to  escape.  Changing  garments  with  her 
laundress,  with  a  bundle  of  clothes  in  her  arms,  she  passed 
the  gates  of  the  castle  and  stepped  into  a  boat.  As  they 
were  crossing  the  lake,  one  of  the  rowers  insisted  upon  seeing 
her  face,  which  was  concealed  by  a  hood.  In  raising 
her  hands  to  prevent  this,  their  delicacy  betrayed 
that  she  was  no  laundress.  Despite  her  entreaties  she  was 
rowed  back  to  the  castle ;  all  that  she  could  obtain  being  a 
promise  from  the  watermen  that  they  would  not  betray  to 
the  governor  her  attempt  to  escape.  This  first  ill  success  did 
not  dishearten  Mary. 

She  had  a  friend  in  the  '^  Little  Douglas,"  a  relative  of  Sir 
William  Douglas,  the  lord  of  Loch-Leven.  The  boy  stole 
the  keys  of  the  castle,  opened  the  gates,  and,  when  the  queen 


212  HISTORY  OP  ENGLAND. 

had  passed  out,  threw  the  keys  into  the  deep  waters  of  the 
loch.  Then,  placing  the  queen  in  a  skij0f,  he  rowed  her  to 
the  shore,  where,  mounted  on  a  fleet  horse,  provided  by  a 
party  of  friends,  she  escaped  to  Hamilton.  In  the  course  of 
a  few  days  she  had  collected  an  army  of  four  or  five  thousand 
men,  with  which  she  encountered  her  enemies  at  Langside. 
In  the  battle  which  followed  she  was  entirely  defeated,  and 
fled  from  the  disastrous  field,  scarcely  stopping  until  she  had 
reached  Dundrennan  Abbey,  nearly  sixty  miles  from  the  fatal 
spot.  The  next  step  was  the  most  unfortunate  one  which  she 
could  have  taken — to  enter  England  and  throw  herself  upon 
the  protection  of  Queen  Elizabeth,   . 

Mary  begged  for  an  interview  with  her  sister-queen.  This 
was  denied  until  her  character  should  be  cleared  of  the  charges 
brought  against  her.  Meanwhile  the  royal  captive  was  trans- 
ferred from  Carlisle  Castle  to  Bolton  Hall,  a  more  secure  and 
gloomy  prison  in  Yorkshire.  A  commission  appointed  by 
Elizabeth  and  the  Regent  Murray,  proceeded  to  examine  the 
charges  brought  against  the  Queen  of  Scots.  Nothing  crimi- 
nal was  proved,  but  Elizabeth  feared  too  much  Mary's  title  to 
the  English  throne,  to  be  willing  to  release  her.  Whilst 
keeping  the  queen  of  Scotland  a  prisoner,  and  accusing  her 
of  designs  upon  the  English  crown,  Elizabeth  herself  openly 
befriended  the  Regent  Murray  and  Mary's  enemies.  The 
friends  of  the  latter  in  France,  and  King  Philip  of  Spain,  as 
well  as  some  parties  in  England,  concerted  plots  for  her  resto- 
jggg  ration  to  the  throne  of  Scotland.  In  every  conspiracy 
to  Mary  was  accused  of  joining.  Removed  from  prison- 
house  to  prison-house,  her  twenty  years  of  captive  life 
were  truly  sorrowful  and  hopeless.  At  length,  in  the  year 
1586,  a  formidable  plot  was  discovered,  to  murder  Elizabeth, 
and  deliver  the  Queen  of  Scots. 

This  sealed  the  fate  of  Mary.  Accused  of  being  a  party  to 
these  designs,  and  of  encouraging  an  invasion  of  England  by 
the  king  of  Spain,  she  was  tried  at  Fotheringay  Castle,  her 
last  prison-house,  by  a  commission  no  more  impartial  than  the 
former  one  had  been.     She  was  condemned  to  die.     Aftr'- 


QUEEN    ELIZABETH.  213 

great  hesitation,  Elizabeth  signed  the  death -warrant.  Mary 
received  the  news  with  a  serenity  ahnost  amuiMiting  to  cheer- 
fulness. She  passed  the  night  previous  to  her  execution  in 
reading,  writing,  consoling  her  women,  and  "in  prayer.  At 
eight  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  8th  February,  1587,  she 
passed  from  her  oratory  to  the  scaffold.  She  was  attired  in  a 
dress  of  black  satin.  A  lawn  veil  reached  from  her  head- 
dress to  her  feet.     In  her  hand  she  bore  an  ivory  crucifix. 

Years  of  captivity  and  sorrow  had  destroyed  the  beauty  of 
Mary  Stuart,  but  her  air  of  grace  and  majesty  were  still  left, 
and  moved  the  hearts  of  those  who  saw  her  pass  to  the  place 
of  execution.  Her  old  and  tried  servant,  Sir  Robert  Melville, 
fell  at  her  feet  in  an  agony  of  tears.  She  said  to  him :  "  Good 
Melville,  cease  to  lament,  but  rather  rejoice,  for  thou  shalt 
now  see  a  final  period  to  Mary  Stuart's  troubles.  The  world, 
my  servant,  is  all  but  vanity,  and  subject  to  more  sorrow  than 
an  ocean  of  tears  can  wash  away.''  When  upon  the  scaffold, 
she  prayed  for  the  church,  her  son,  and  the  English  queen ; 
then  kissing  the  crucifix  which  she  held  in  her  hand,  she 
cried:  "As  thy  arms,  0  Jesu,  were  stretched  upon  the  cross, 
so  receive  me,  O  Grod,  into  the  arms  of  mercy."  The  Earl 
of  Kent,  shocked  by  her  embracing  the  crucifix,  said  to  her : 
"  Madam,  you  had  better  put  such  Popish  trumpery  out  of 
your  hand,  and  carry  Christ  in  your  heart."  Mary  meekly 
replied:  "  I  can  hardly  bear  this  emblem  in  my  hand,  without, 
at  the  same  time,  bearing  him  in  my  heart."  Calmly  she 
laid  her  head  upon  the  block,  and  uttering  the  words  "  Into 
thy  hands,  0  Lord,  I  commend  my  spirit/'  she  yielded  her 
life. 

Questions,— Of  which  of  the  wives  of  Henry  VIII.  was  Elizabeth 
the  daughter? — What  did  the  mother  say  when  warned  against 
marrying  Henry  VIII.  ?— How  was  the  announcement  of  Elizabeth's 
accession  received  ? — What  curious  petition  was  presented  to  the 
queen  the  day  following  her  coronation  ? — What  was  required  of 
English  subjects  by  the  act  of  supremacy? — What  was  the  effect  of 
this  act  upon  Roman  Catholics  ? — By  whom  was  the  queen  sought  in 
marriage  ? — What  announcement  did  she  make  on  this  occasion  ? — 


214  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

Who  was  her  secrjetary  of  state?— Mention  the  instances  of  good 
government  afforded  in  this  reign. 

State  Mary  Stuart's  claim  to  the  English  throne. — By  whom  was 
she  regarded  as.  the  only  lawful  sovereign  of  the  realm? — Where 
had  Mary  been  educated  ?— Whom  did  she  marry  ? — What  awakened 
Elizabeth's  hostility  towards  Mary  ?— Describe  the  religious  parties 
which  at  this  time  divided  Scotland.— Give  some  account  of  Mary 
Stuart's  reception  in  Scotland.— How  did  the  reformer  Knox  treat 
Mary  ?— What  difficulties  existed  with  regard  to  Mary's  forming  a 
matrimonial  alliance  ?— Whom  did  she  marry  ?— Relate  the  story  of 
Rizzio. — Describe  the  death  of  Darnley. — What  was  the  conduct  of 
Bothwell  towards  the  queen? — Describe  the  effect  of  the  queen's 
marriage  with  Bothwell.— Describe  her  prison-house. 

What  claim  was  Mary  compelled  to  resign  ? — In  whose  hands  was 
the  government  placed  ? — Relate  Mary's  first  attempt  at  escape, 
with  the  result. — Describe  the  second  adventure,  and  its  issue. — 
What  was  the  result  of  her  encounter  with  her  enemies? — What  fatal 
step  did  Mary  now  take  ? — Relate  the  conduct  of  the  English  queen 
towards  her  unhappy  rival. — Who  plotted  for  Mary's  restoration? — 
What  was  her  history  during  the  next  twenty  years  ? — What  accusa- 
tions were  brought  against  the  Queen  of  Scots? — What  was  the  result 
of  her  trial? — Describe  the  last  scenes  of  Mary's  life. 


CHAPTER  XXXYL 

QUEEN    ELIZABETH  —  THE    LAST    SIXTEEN    YEARS    OP    HER 
REIGN. 

THE    INVINCIBLE    ARMADA — LEICESTER — ESSEX    AND    HIS    ENEMIES. 

Mary's  son,  James,  was  king  in  Scotland  when  his  mother 
was  put  to  death.  He  pretended  great  sorrow  and 
indignation  on  receiving  the  news,  but  Elizabeth 
found  means  to  pacify  him.  The  fear  of  losing  the  succession 
to  the  English  crown,  of  which  he  was  now  the  direct  heir, 
kept  him  quiet.  Not  thus  was  concihated  another  monarch, 
Philip  of  Spain,  who  had  less  personal  grounds  than  James 
for  revenging  the  death  of  Queen  Mary.     He  had,  however, 


QUEEN    ELIZABETH.      ^  215 

his  own  reasons  for  enmity  to  the  English  (]^ueen.  Elizabeth 
had  aided,  at  first,  seeretly,  but  afterwardiS  openly,  Philip's 
Protestant  subjects  in  the  Netherlands,  who  had  revolted 
from  him. 

Nearly  two  years  before  the  execution  of  Mary,  Elizabeth 
had  sent  her  court  favorite,  the  Earl  of  Leicester,  into  Hol- 
land. Leicester  was  not  capable  of  doing  much  for  the  cause 
which  he  had  undertaken,  and  his  expedition  is  only  memo- 
rable for  the  death  of  the  accomplished  Sir  Philip  Sidney, 
one  of  the  brightest  ornaments  of  the  court  of  the  English 
queen.  He  perished  in  an  attack  on  the  town  of  Zutphen. 
Whilst  lying  wounded  upon  the  field  of  battle,  a  soldier 
brought  to  him  some  water  in  a  helmet.  As  the  dying 
nobleman  put  the  cooling  draught  to  his  lips  to  quench  his 
intolerable  thirst,  his  eye  caught  the  longing  look  of  a 
wounded  soldier  who  lay  near  him.  "  Friend,  thy  necessity 
is  greater  than  mine !"  exclaimed  the  noble  Sidney,  and 
passed  the  cooling  beverage  to  his  dying  comrade's  lips !  At 
the  siege  of  Zutphen,  another  young  and  gallant  favorite  of 
the  queen  distinguished  himself  This  was  Robert  Devereux, 
Earl  of  Essex,  then  a  youth  of  nineteen,  full  of  military 
ardor,  frank  and  accomplished. 

Philip,  provoked  by  the  part  which  Elizabeth  had  taken  in 
the  afiairs  of  the  Netherlands,  retaliated  by  engaging  in  many 
of  the  plots  made  to  release  Mary  of  Scotland  and  overturn 
the  throne  of  the  English  queen.  On  the  death  of  Mary,  he 
threw  oS"  all  disguise,  openly  declared  war  against  Elizabeth, 
and  made  formidable  preparations  for  the  invasion  of  England. 
Besides  a  large  army,  he  equipped  a  fleet  of  one  hundred 
and  thirty  vessels,  proudly  styled  the  "Invincible  Armada." 
The  death  of  the  admiral,  and  storms,  detained  the  vessels  in 
the  Tagus,  and  it  was  not  until  nearly  a  year  after  war  had 
been  proclaimed,  that  the  mighty  armament  left  the  shores 
of  Spain. 

Meanwhile  Elizabeth  had  not  been  idle.  Her  kingdom 
resounded  with  preparations  to  repel  the  formidable  invasion. 
The  English  queen,  who  certainly  had  "■  the  genius  to  be 


216  ,  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

loved/'  as  well  as  feared,  by  her  subjects,  never  awakened 
greater  enthusiasm  among  them  than  on  this  occasion.  She 
15  88.  ^PP^^^"®^  before  her  troops  on  horseback  in  the  camp 
at  Tilbury,  and  with  cheerful  voice  and  animated 
countenance,  told  them  that,  if  need  were,  she  herself  would 
lead  them  against  their  enemies.  "  I  know,"  she  added,  ^'  1 
have  but  the  body  of  a  weak  and  feeble  woman,  but  I  have 
the  heart  of  a  king,  and  of  a  king  of  England  too;  and  think 
foul  scorn  that  Parma,  or  Spain,  or  any  prince  in  Europe, 
should  dare  to  invade  the  borders  of  my  realm."  The  royal 
navy  at  this  critical  time  was  increased  by  the  voluntary  con- 
tributions of  nobles  and  people,  who  at  their  own  cost  fitted 
and  manned  merchant  vessels,  which  were  commanded  by  the 
most  noted  and  skiK'ul  seamen  of  the  age — such  famous  navi- 
gators as  Howard  of  Effingham,  Sir  Francis  Drake,  Hawkins, 
and  Frobisher. 

On  the  20th  July,  1588,  the  "  Invincible  Armada,"  in  the 
form  of  a  crescent,  stretching  seven  miles  from  horn  to  horn, 
bore  proudly  up  the  Channel.  The  lighter  English  ships 
poured  in  their  fire,  and  escaped  from  the  heavy  Spanish 
vessels  before  the  latter  could  return  it.  The  English  avoided 
coming  too  near  the  enemy's  ships,  and  their  skilful  tacking 
and  playing  amid  the  Spanish  fleet,  sailing  away  before  their 
fire  could  be  returned,  resembled,  says  one  who  saw  it,  "  a 
morris-dance  upon  the  waters."  Many  ships  were  taken,, 
many  others  sunk,  but  the  Armada  still  remained  formidable 
until  the  night  of  the  27th  July,  when  fire-ships  were  floated 
into  its  midst  by  the  English.  These  caused  great  destruc- 
tion, and,  in  a  few  days,  the  Spanish  fleet  became  so  disabled, 
that  the  commanders  were  obliged  to  abandon  the  enterprise. 
Many  of  the  vessels,  in  trying  to  pass  round  the  coast  of  Scot- 
land, perished  in  a  dreadful  storm  off  the  Orkney  Islands. 
When  at  last  sixty  shattered  vessels,  the  sole  renjnant  of  the 
"Invincible  Armada,"  returned  to  Spain,  the  mariners  tolct. 
fearful  tales  of  the  valor  of  English  seamen  and  the  terrors 
of  English  seas. 

In  the  year  1580,  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  brother  to  the  king 


QUEEN    ELIZABETH.  217 

of  France,  suddenly  appeared  in  England,  hoping  to  obtain 
the  hand  of  Elizabeth.  For  a  time  it  was  supposed  that 
the  English  queen  would  yield  to  his  suit.  But,  after  some 
wavering,  the  young  and  agreeable  French  duke 'was  dis- 
missed, and  the  queen  again  declared  to  her  parliament  her 
intention  to  live  unmarried.  At  a  much  earlier  period  in 
her  reign,  so  great,  was  the  favor  shown  by  EHzabeth  towards 
the  Earl  of  Leicester,  that  fears  were  awakened  that  she 
would  condescend  to  bestow  her  hand  upon  the  haughty 
favorite.  Eobert  Dudley,  Earl  of  Leicester,  was  son  of  the 
Earl  of  Northumberland,  whose  wicked  and  ambitious  machi- 
oations  had  brought  Lady  Jane  Grey  to  the  block.  His 
grandfather  was  the  unscrupulous  lawyer  who,  together  with 
Empson,  had  committed  such  wrongs  and  robberies  in  Henry 
VII. 's  reign. 

The  Earl  of  Leicester,  though  young,  handsome,  and  agree- 
able, showed  a  want  of  principle  worthy  of  such  ancestry. 
In  the  year  1560  he  entertained  Elizabeth  at  his  castle  of 
Kenilworth,  with  great  magnificence,  and  when  her  evident 
partiality  had  inspired  him  with  the  hope  that  he  might  one 
day  share  the  crown,  he  is  said  to  have  caused  the  death  of 
his  lovely  and  attached  wife,  Amy  Robsart,  that  there  might 
be  no  impediment  to  the  royal  marriage.  But  whatever  may 
have  been  Elizabeth's  personal  feelings  towards  Leicester,  she 
was  too  politic  a  sovereign  to  contract  a  marriage  so  distasteful 
to  her  people.  After  a  time  Leicester's  popularity  declined, 
and  he  was  succeeded  in  the  queen's  favor  by  a  very  different 
man — the  frank  and  impetuous  Earl  of  Essex. 

In  the  early  part  of  this  reign,  when  a  mere  youth,  Essex 
had  distinguished  himself,  both  by  sea  and  land,  in  the  wars 
with  Spain,  and  the  queen  had  delighted  in  the  high  spirit 
and  noble  bearing  of  the  young  earl.  But  he  was  too  open- 
tempered  to  be  a  courtier,  and,  as  years  wore  on,  he  declined 
in  favor,  and  made  himself  powerful  enemies  at  court.  The 
chief  of  these  were  Lord  Burleigh  and  Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 
In  the  year  1598,  an  insurrection  having  broken  out  in  Ire- 
land, the  queen  sent  Essex  thither  to  put  it  down. 
19 


218  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

The  miseries  of  this  unhappy  country  had  been  greatly 
increased  since  the  Relormation,  by  the  differences  in  religion 
between  the  two  nations.  Whilst  the  English  embraced  Pro- 
testantistn,  the  Irish,  who  in  the  first  instance  had  with  so 
much  difficulty  been  brought  to  acknowledge  the  papal  su- 
premacy, now  adhered  to  the  Romish  faith.  When  Henry 
VIII.  sent  his  agents  into  Ireland  to  suppress  the  monasteries 
and  religious  houses,  and  to  seize  for  the  crown  the  property 
of  the  Irish  church,  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  royal 
families,  the  O'Connors  and  O'Neils,  rose  in  rebellion.  Hor- 
rible atrocities,  by  no  means  confined  to  the  wild  Irishry,  as 
the  English  termed  them,  were  perpetrated,  and  bitter  enmi- 
ties implanted,  which  centuries  have  not  availed  entirely  to 
eradicate. 

The  leader  of  the  present  rebellion  was  a  native 

X599 

chief,  whom  Elizabeth  had  created  Earl  of  Tyrone. 
He  was  brave  and  active,  and  under  him  the  Irish  achieved 
greater  successes  than  they  had  ever  done  before.  Their 
wild  method  of  warfare  amid  marshes  and  woods  harassed  the 
English  troops.  One  commander  is  said  to  have  died  of  sheer 
grief  and  vexation.  Another  was  defeated  in  a  pitched  battle, 
losing  his  own  life  as  well  as  the  lives  of  fifteen  hundred  of  his 
soldiers,  with  all  his  artillery  and  ammunition. 

The  sending  of  Essex  to  quell  such  a  formidable  outbreak 
was  a  scheme  contrived  by  his  enemies  to  effect  his  ruin. 
The  imprudent  earl,  failing  where  abler  governors  had  been 
unable  to  succeed,  drew  upon  himself  the  displeasure  of 
Elizabeth,  which  was  further  argmented  by  the  misrepresent- 
ations of  his  enemies. 

She  sent  a  sharp  letter  of  reproof  to  the  hard-tried  Essex, 
who,  irritated  and  distressed,  without  waiting  the  permission 
of  his  royal  mistress,  suddenly  left  Ireland.  Hastening  to 
the  English  court,  he  rushed  into  the  queen's  presence,  one 
morning  before  she  had  left  her  dressing-room,  and,  falling 
at  her  feet,  craved  her  pardon.  Elizabeth"  received  him 
graciously,  but  after  his  departure,  she  was  induced  to  view 


QUEEN    ELIZABETH,  219 

his  conduct  with  displeasure,  and  ordered  him  to  remain  a 
prisoner  at  Essex  Place.  The  Earl  of  Mountjoy  was  sent  to 
Ireland,  and  by  his  ability  and  prudence  was  enabled  in  some 
measure  to  quiet  the  disturbances  there. 

About  a  year  after  the  return  of  Essex  from  Ireland,  he, 
being  released  from  custody,  but  not  permitted  to  appear  at 
court,  applied  to  the  queen  for  a  renewal  of  a  patent  which  he 
had  held  for  some  years,  but  which  had  now  expired.  Eliza- 
beth refused,  with  expressions  extremely  irritating  to  the  earl. 
Believing  that  he  had  for  ever  lost  the  favor  of  the  queen,  and 
that  she  was  surrounded  by  his  enemies,  and  trusting  to  his 
great  popularity,  this  infatuated  nobleman  entertained  the 
wild  scheme  of  overthrowing  the  government  of  Elizabeth. 
He  rushed  into  the  streets  of  London  with  about 

1601. 

three  hundred  followers,  hoping  that  the  populace 
would  join  him.  But  the  throne  of  the  queen  was  based  on 
the  esteem  and  affections  of  her  people,  and  no  rebellion 
ensued. 

Essex  was  seized  and  thrown  into  the  Tower.  At  the  end 
of  a  few  days  he  was  arraigned  for  high  treason  before  a 
court,  many  of  the  members  of  which  were  his  personal  ene- 
mies. Pronounced  guilty,  this  brave  and  accomplished  noble- 
man, at  the  early  age  of  thirty-three,  died  upon  the  scaffold. 

EHzabeth  did  not  long  survive  the  execution  of  her  favorite, 
and  many  thought  that  his  death  hastened  her  own.  Whether 
caused  by  sorrow  for  the  death  of  Essex  or  not,  the  last  year 
of  Elizabeth's  life  was  a  melancholy  one.  For  ten  days  pre- 
vious to  her  death  she  lay  upon  the  floor,  supported 
by  cushions,  and  gave  way  to  her  feelings  of  distress 
by  sighs  and  groans.  She  would  take  neither  food  nor  medi- 
cine. Her  ministers  asked  whom  she  would  have  to  succeed 
her.  She  replied  :  ''  I  tell  you  my  seat  has  been  the  seat  of 
kings;  ...  I  will  have  a  king  to  succeed  me,  and  who  should 
that  be  but  my  cousin  of  Scotland?"  When  too  much  ex- 
hausted to  resist,  she  was  laid  upon  a  bed.  She  listened 
attentively  and  with  interest  to  the  prayers  and  sermons  of  the 


220  HISTORY   OP   ENGLAND. 

divines  who  attended  her,  almost  to  the  hour  of  her  death, 
which  occurred  on  the  24th  March,  1603. 


Questions.— Describe  the  conduct  of  the  king  of  Scotland  on  the 
occasion  of  his  mother's  death. — What  monarch  did  resent  Mary's 
death?— How  had  Elizabeth  roused  the  enmity  of  the  king  of  Spain? 
— Whom  had  Elizabeth  sent  to  aid  the  Dutch  Protestants? — For  what 
is  this  expedition  memorable  ?— Describe  the  death  of  Sir  Philip 
Sidney.— Describe  Philip's  preparations  for  the  invasion  of  England. 
— Give  the  account  of  Elizabeth's  conduct  and  preparations  on  this 
occasion. — By  what  means  was  the  English  navy  increased  ? — Name 
some  of  the  commanders. — Describe  the  approach  of  the  Spanish 
Armada. — Give  an  account  of  the  naval  battle  which  ensued. — State 
the  result  of  this  engagement. — How  was  the  Armada  destroyed? — 
How  many  vessels  returned  to  Spain? 

What  suitor  appeared  at  the  English  court  in  1580? — What  was 
the  result  of  his  suit  ? — How  did  Elizabeth  regard  the  Earl  of  Lei- 
cester ? — What  is  said  of  Leicester's  entertainments  to  the  queen  ? — 
Did  he  remain  a  favorite? — By  whom  was  he  succeeded  in  the 
queen's  regard  ? 

Describe  the  character  of  Essex. — For  what  purpose  was  Essex 
sent  to  Ireland? — What  was  his  conduct  there? — In  what  way  did 
the  queen  evince  her  displeasure  at  his  course  ? — Describe  the  con- 
duct of  Essex  on  this  occasion. — How  did  Elizabeth  receive  him  ? — 
Relate  her  subsequent  treatment  of  the  favorite. 

W'hat  effect  is  Essex's  death  supposed  to  have  produced  upon  Eliza- 
beth?— Describe  her  condition  during  the  last  days  of  life. — Who  did 
she  name  as  her  successor  to  the  throne? — When  did  Elizabeth  die? 


CHAPTER  XXXVir. 

CONDITION  OF  ENGLAND  IN  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 

THE     REFORMATION — ESTABLISHMENT     OF     THE     ENGLISH     CHURCH  —  DIS- 
SENTERS. 

At  the  opening  of  this  century  England  was  a  Roman 
Catholic  country,  and  the  power  of  the  Pope  and  the  clergy 
were  yet  in  the  ascendant.     Even  during  the  first  nineteen 


ENGLAND  IN  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.      221 

years  of  Henry  VIII. 's  reign,  he  was  a  devoted  servant  of  the 
pajoal  church.  At  his  accession  the  Pope  sent  him  a  conse- 
crated golden  rose,  dipped  in  holy  oil,  perfumed  with  musk, 
and  accompanied  by  the  apostolic  benediction.  When  Luther 
commenced  the  Reformation,  Henry  wrote  a  book  against  it. 
A  copy  of  this  work,  splendidly  bound,  was  presented  to  the 
Pope,  who  received  it  most  graciously,  saying,  "  it  was  sprin- 
kled with  the  dew  of  divine  grace,"  and  bestowing  on  the 
royal  author  the  honorable  title  of  "  Defender  of  the  Faith." 
Little  did  the  Pope  imagine  that  from  this  highly-favored  son 
of  holy  church,  would  come  that  death-blow  to  papal  power 
in  England,  which  was  given  in  the  year  1534,  when  Henry 
YIII.  declared  himself  the  "  Head  of  the  Church"  in  his  domi- 
nions. This  act  was  followed  by  causing  first  the  lesser,  and 
then  the  richer  religious  houses  to  be  abolished,  and  their 
wealth  confiscated  to  the  crown.  Some  of  these  beautiful 
buildings  were  turned  into  schools  or  colleges,  and  a  portion 
of  their  property  was  devoted  to  the  founding  of  new  dioceses, 
and  for  purposes  of  instruction  and  improvement.  The 
greater  part,  however,  was  bestowed  by  the  king  on  unworthy 
favorites,  or  in  support  of  his  own  magnificence.   * 

Although  Henry  VIIL  had  thrown  off  the  supremacy  of 
the  Pope,  he  still  retained  many  of  the  doctrines  and  cere- 
monies, as  well  as  the  persecuting  spirit  of  the  papal  church. 
As  in  former  reigns,  those  who  denied  the  doctrine  of  tran- 
substantiation,  the  worship  of  images,  or  the  celibacy  of 
the  clergy,  were  burned  at  the  stake.  From  his  marriage 
with  Anna  Boleyn  to  the  death  of  Jane  Seymour,  Henry  was 
more  inclined  to  support  the  Reformation  than  in  the  later 
years  of  his  life.  Archbishop  Cranmer  took  advantage  of 
this  favorable  disposition  to  urge  an  English  translation  of 
the  Bible  for  the  people.  The  entire  Bible  had  been  trans- 
lated and  printed  in  English  by  one  Miles  Coverdale;  and 
as  soon  as  Cranmer  had  received  the  king's  permission,  he 
ordered  a  copy  of  this  Bible  to  be  placed  in  every  parish 
church. 

Cranmer  then  employed  the  most  learned  scholars  he  could 
19* 


222  HISTORY   OF  ENGLAND. 

find,  to  make  a  new  translation  of  the  Word  of  God.  This 
was  finished  in  x\pril  of  the  year  15o9.  It  was  printed  partly 
at  Paris  and  partly  in  London.  The  new  Bible  was  a  large 
folio,  adorned  with  a  wood-cut,  the  design  of  the  celebrated 
painter,  Hans  Holbein.  The  engraving  represents  the  dis- 
tributing of  the  Scriptures  to  the  people,  and  is  beautifully 
executed.  When  Cranmer  received  the  first  copies  of  the 
holy  book,  he  declared  they  gave  him  more  joy  than  if  he 
had  received  ten  thousand  pounds.  "  Cranmer's,"  or  "  The 
Great  Bible,"  is  the  name  usually  given  to  this  translation. 

Copies  of  this  first  authorized  English  Bible  were  chained 
either  to  a  desk  at  the  church-porch,  or  in  the  choir  of  the 
churches,  that  the  poor,  who  could  not  obtain  them  in  private 
might  go  there  and  read  them.  Six  were  chained  to  pillars, 
in  various  parts  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  So  great  was  the 
enthusiasm  when  they  were  first  introduced,  that  crowds 
flocked  to  the  churches.  Any  one  who  had  a  loud  clear 
voice  would  gather  a  group  around  him,  listening  with  eager 
interest  to  the  Word  of  God,  whilst  the  priest  at  the  altar 
could  get  few  to  attend  to  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  or  other 
parts  of  the  Romish  ritual.  This  state  of  things  aroused  the 
opposition  of  the  clergy,  and  when  Henry  was  less  favorable 
to  the  Reformation,  the  people  were  forbidden  to  read  the 
Bible.  The  prohibition,  however,  had  but  little  efi"ect  on  any 
who  could  get  possession  of  the  Word  of  God. 

The  services  of  the  church  were  altogether  in  Latin,  until 
the  year  1544,  when,  as  the  king  was  about  to  undertake  wars 
in  France,  and  prayers  were  to  be  ofi'ered  up  in  the  churches 
for  his  safety,  Cranmer  urged  that  the  people  w^ould  pray  with 
more  fervor,  if  the  prayers  were  said  in  a  language  which  they 
understood.  The  king  then  ordered  that  they  should  be  in 
English,  which  gave  great  joy  to  the  Reformers. 

Church -going,  in  those  days,  was  far  from  being  "  the 
assembling  of  themselves  together"  for  the  reverent  worship 
of  Almighty  God.  Sunday  was  the  day  for  revelry  of  all 
kinds.  The  service  was  hurried  over,  that  more  time  might 
be  had  for  the  games  and  plays  which  were  to  follow.     It  is 


ENGLAND   IN   THE   SIXTEENTH   CENTURY.  223 

almost  impossible  to  credit  the  follies  which  were  enacted 
during  the  most  sacred  of  the  church  festivals.  An  old  writer 
relates  that  at  Christmas  the  Lord  of  Misrule  would  gather 
nearly  a  hundred  companions  as  riotous  as  himself.  They 
would  dress  in  the  gayest  garments,  "  and,  as  though  they 
were  not  gaudy  enough,  bedeck  themselves  with  scarfs,  rib- 
bons, and  laces,  hanged  all  over  with  gold  rings,  precious 
stones,  and  other  jewels;  this  done,  they  tie  about  either  leg 
twenty  or  forty  bells,  with  rich  handkerchiefs  in  their  hands, 
and  sometimes  laid  across  over  their  shoulders  and  necks." . . . 
Then,  accompanied  by  hobby-horses,  pipers,  and  drummers, 
this  ungodly  crew  would  enter  the  church,  in  the  midst  of 
divine  service,  with  jingling  of  bells,  beating  of  drums,  and 
shouting  like  very  madmen. 

In  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  the  Reformation  made  more 
substantial  progress,  and  the  foundation  of  a  Protestant  church 
was  completed.  The  Latin  Mass-Book  gave  place  to  the  Eng- 
lish Book  of  Common  Prayer.  The  communion  was  adminis- 
tered in  both  kinds  to  the  laity ;  the  worship  of  images 
and  pilgrimages  to  shrines  was  forbidden  or  discouraged; 
and  finally,  in  1552,  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  Religion  (at 
first  forty-two)  were  established.  On  All  Saints'  Day  of  that 
same  year,  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  was  first  used  at  St. 
Paul's  and  throughout  the  churches  of  London.  Ridley,  the 
bishop  of  London,  performed  the  service  in  the  morning  at 
the  cathedral,  and  in  the  afternoon  preached  at  Paul's  Cross, 
explaining  the  new  service  book,  in  the  presence  of  a  large 
congregation,  including  the  lord  mayor  and  aldermen.  The 
bishop's  sermon  was  continued  until  torch-light. 

When  Mary  succeeded  her  brother,  the  end  and  aim  of  her 
government,  almost  of  her  existence,  was  to  restore  Romanism. 
The  result,  however,  of  this  cruel  and  persecuting  reign  was 
to  render  England  more  decidedly  Protestant  than  it  had  ever 
been  before. 

When  Elizabeth  came  to  the  throne,  the  great  mass  of  the 
people  had  abandoned  the  old  religion.  This  queen,  herself, 
held  many  of  the  views  belonging  to  the  church  of  Rome.   She 


224  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

had  a  great  aversion  to  manied  priests,  and  to  the  day  of  her 
death  she  kept  a  cruciiix  in  her  chamber.  Slie  was  not  a  reli- 
gious persecutor,  but  she  checked  the  spirit  of  Protestant  reform, 
and  maintained  the  church  as  Cranmer  had  left  it.  A  large 
class  of  English  subjects,  during  the  persecutions  of  Queen 
Mary's  reign,  had  fled  to  the  continent.  There  they  adopted 
the  opinions  of  Calvin  and  Zwingle,  who  carried  the  Protestant 
Reformation  to  a  far  greater  length  than  the  English  reformers 
had  done.  When  these  exiles  returned  to  their  native  land, 
on  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  they  objected  to  the  conservative 
policy  of  the  established  church,  and  refused  to  observe  many 
of  the  forms  of  worship  retained  in  its  ritual.  In  1559  a  law, 
called  "The  Act  of  Uniformity,''  was  passed,  obliging  all 
English  subjects  to  celebrate  divine  worship  according  to  the 
forms  prescribed  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  The  Puri- 
tans (as  they  were  named  in  derision)  refused  to  obey  this 
law,  and  in  the  year  1566  separated  from  the  established 
church.  They  were  called  non-conformists  and  dissenters, 
and,  as  we  shall  see,  the  acts  against  them,  and  the  persecu- 
tions they  endured,  increased  in  severity  for  the  next  hundred 
years. 

Questions. — What  was  the  condition  of  England  as  regards  reli- 
gion, at  the  opening  of  the  sixteenth  century  ? — Describe  the  favor 
with  which  Henry  was  regarded  by  the  Pope  during  the  first  years 
of  his  reign. — When  and  by  what  act  was  the  papacy  overthrown  in 
England. — By  what  was  this  act  followed  ? — What  did  some  of  the 
religious  houses  become  ? — Describe  the  appropriation  of  their  reve- 
nues.— Describe  Henry's  conduct  with  regard  to  religion. — During 
what  period  of  his  reign  did  the  Reformation  make  the  most  decided 
progress  ? 

How  did  Cranmer  improve  this  time  ? — Describe  Cranmer's  Bible. 
— When  was  it  published  ? — What  was  done  with  these  new  Bibles  ? 
— Describe  the  scene  witnessed  in  the  churches  where  the  Bibles 
were  to  be  read. — To  what  prohibition  did  tliis  give  rise? — Relate 
the  incident  which  led  to  the  translation  of  the  church-service. — 
How  did  church-going  in  those  days  differ  from  that  of  the  present 
time? — Describe  the  profanation  of  the  Lord's  day. — What  folly  was 


ENGLAND    DURING    THE    SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.        225 

enacted  at  Christmas  time? — Repeat  the  description  given  of  thia 
revel. 

Describe  the  progress  of  the  Reformation  during  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward VI. — When  was  the  Booli  of  Common  Prayer  first  introduced? 

Relate  the  circumstances. — What  was  the  eifect  of  Mary's  acces- 

gion? What  was  the  condition  of  the  nation  at  Elizabeth's  acces- 
sion ? Wliat  doctrine  arfd  practice  of  Romanists  did  she  observe  ?— 

What  spirit  did  she  check  ?— How  was  this  policy  regarded  by  some 
of  her  subjects  ? — Who  were  these  ?— What  law  was  passed  in  1559  ? 

To  what  did  it  compel  English  subjects? — What  was  the  final  eflfect 

of  the  Act  of  Conformity  upon  the  Puritans  ? — What  were  they  then 
called  ? — How  were  they  treated  ? 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 

CONDITION  OF  ENGLAND  DURING  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 

LEARNINa — PAIXTING — ARCHITECTURE — COMMERCE — MANUFACTURES. 

Many  distinguished  scholars  flourished  in  England  during 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  great  Cardinal  Wolsey  was  a 
liberal  patron  of  learning  and  the  fine  arts.  He  commenced 
at  Oxford  a  college  which,  in  beauty  of  architecture  and  rich- 
ness of  endowment,  would  have  surpassed  any  other  institution 
then  existing.  It  was  to  have  been  name^  Cardinal  College. 
Immense  sums  were  expended  upon  the  buildings,  libraries, 
pictures,  statues,  furniture,  &c.  He  had  formed,  too,  the 
design  of  procuring  copies  of  all  the  manuscripts  of  the  library 
of  the  Vatican,  wherewith  to  enrich  his  noble  foundation. 
But^  before  his  plans  were  completed,  the  great  cardinal 
was  disgraced,  and  all  his  wealth  was  forfeited  to  the  king. 
Christ  Church  College,  Oxford,  is  all  that  remains  of  Wolsey's 
magnificent  design.  He  had  founded  a  school  at  Ipswich, 
and  seven  lectures  at  Oxford,  to  be  read  by  the  most  learned 
men  who  could  be  procured. 

Of  the  twenty  colleges  now  existing  at  Oxford,  six  were 
P 


226  HI8TORY  Of  England. 

founded  during  this  period;  and  of  the  seventeen  at  Cam- 
bridge, no  less  than  eight  owe  their  origin  to  the  piety  or 
hberal  patronage  of  learning  which  prevailed  at  this  time. 
Later  in  the  century,  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  was  founded 
by  Queen  Elizabeth.  Christ  Church,  Westminster,  and  the 
Merchant  Tailors'  Schools,  were  also  tstabhshed.  The  first 
was  founded  in  1553,  by  King  Edward  VI.;  the  second  by 
Queen  Elizabeth,  in  1560;  and  the  last  by  the  Merchant 
Tailors'  Company,  in  1568. 

At  St.  Paul's  School,  which  was  founded  in  Londoif  during 
the  first  year  of  Henry  VIII. 's  reign,  the  famous  grammarian, 
William  Lilly,  taught  G-reek  publicly.  There  had  been  great 
jealousy  of  "  the  new  learning,"  as  the  ignorant  churchmen 
of  that  day  called  the  study  of  this  ancient  language.  When 
Erasmus  published  his  Greek  Testament,  the  clergy  declared 
that  it  was  a  book  of  his  own  invention,  and  accused  him  of 
intending  to  set  up  a  new  religion.  Lilly  published  a  gram- 
mar, which  was  soon  in  use  in  all  the  schools  in  England. 
It  contained  a  preface  written  by  Cardinal  Wolsey. 

The  upright  chancellor,  Sir  Thomas  More,  wrote  a  veiy 
famous  book,  called  "  Utopia."  He  was  a  great  promoter  of 
learning,  and  inspired  his  children  with  his  own  love  of 
knowledge.  His  daughters,  especially  the  eldest,  the  amiable 
and  affectionate  Margaret  Roper,  were  among  the  most  accom- 
plished women  of  the  age ; — an  age,  too,  which  was  fruitful  in 
learned  women.  Queens  Mary  and  Elizabeth  were  not  only 
fine  Latin  scholars,  but  the  latter,  we  have  the  testimony  of 
her  schoolmaster,  Roger  Ascjiam,  was  a  proficient  in  Greek, 
and  both  sisters  were  conversant  with  French,  Spanish,  and 
Italian.  The  Latin  epistle  which  the  Lady  Jane  Grey  wrote 
her  sister,  the  night  before  her  execution,  is  celebrated  for 
the  beauty  of  its  style. 

The  three  daughters  of  Sir  Anthony  Cooke  vied  with  the 
household  of  Sir  Thomas  More  in  their  varied  learning.  The 
eldest  of  these  ladies  married  P]lizabeth's  famous  statesman. 
Lord  Burleigh ;  the  second  became  the  wife  of  Sir  Nicholas 
Bacon,  and  was  the  mother  of  the  very  celebrated  philosopher 


ENGLAND   DURING   THE    SIXTEENTH   CENTURY.        227 

of  that  name ;  and  the  third,  who  became  Lady  Kilhgrew, 
surpassed  her  sisters  by  adding  Hebrew  to  her  knowledge 
of  Greek  and  Latin.  These  learned  ladies  are  spoken  of  not 
only  as  proficients  in  music,  but  also  as  well  skilled  in  needle- 
work, and  "  none  of  them/'  says  an  old  writer,  "  but  when 
they  be  at  home,  can  help  to  supply  the  ordinary  want  of  the 
kitchen  with  a  number  of  delicate  dishes  of  their  own  de- 
vising.'' 

Although  we  have  these  illustrious  instances  of  learning, 
we  must  not  be  deceived  thereby  into  believing  that  the 
whole  nation  was  proportion  ably  well  educated.  The  schools 
for  the  lower  orders  had  been  kept  in  the  convents  and 
religious  houses.  When  these  were  broken  up,  the  mass  of 
the  people  were  left  without  instruction.  By  the  dissolution 
of  the  monasteries,  complains  the  speaker  of  the  House  of 
Commons  to  Elizabeth,  more  than  one  hundred  flourishing 
schools  have  been  destroyed.  This  loss  was  partially  provided 
for  by  the  establishment  of  grammar  schools,  but  they  only 
supplied  the  wants  of  the  larger  towns.  In  many  country 
jglaces,  the  ignorance  of  the  population  was  lamentable.  The 
father  of  the  immortal  Shakspeare,  although  alderman  in  the 
little  town  of  Stratford-on-Avon,  is  supposed  not  to  have 
known  how  to  write  his  own  name ;  and  where  one  man  could 
pretend  to  such  an  accomplishment,  there  were  ten  or  twelve 
who  could  only  ''make  their  mark." 

The  fine  arts  received  great  patronage  during  this  century. 
The  celebrated  Dutch  painter,  Holbein,  came  into  England  in 
the  year  1526,  bringing  letters  of  introduction  from  Erasmus 
to  Sir  Thomas  More,  and  was  introduced  by  the  latter  to  his 
royal  master.  Henry  VIII.  assigned  the  Dutch  painter  a 
studio  at  Whitehall,  and  paid  him  liberally  for  his  pictures. 
Even  after  he  had  deceived  the  king  by  a  flattering  likeness 
of  Anne  of  Cleves,  Holbein  was  fortunate  enough  to  retain 
the  favor  of  the  monarch.  On  one  occasion  this  painter 
behaved  with  great  rudeness  towards  a  courtier  of  high  rank. 
When  the  nobleman  complained  to  the  royal  ear,  Henry  took" 
the   part  of  the   painter,  and  forbade  his  courtier  to  seek 


228  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

revenge,  saying :  "  Remember,  that  of  seven  peasants  I  can 
make  as  many  lords,  but  I  cannot  make  one  Holbein." 

The  architecture  of  palaces  and  dwelling-houses,  generally 
known  as  the  Tudor  style,  was  far  more  elegant  and  commo- 
dious than  anything  which  had  preceded  it.  King  Henry 
YII.'s  palace  at  Sheen,  which  he  named  Richmond;  Wolse/s 
palace  at  Hampton  Court ;  and  a  beautiful  royal  retreat  called 
<'  Nonsuch,"  in  Surrey,  were  fine  specimens  of  this  style  of 
architecture.  As  the  Italian  fashion  of  having  the  principal 
apartments  on  the  upper  floor  was  adopted  during  this  century, 
great  attention  was  now  paid  to  the  halls  and  to  the  stair-cases, 
which  latter  were  made  of  oak,  broad,  and  ornamented  with 
carvings.  Chimneys  were  sparingly  introduced.  The  chim- 
ney-pieces occupied  the  whole  height  of  the  room,  and  upon 
them  was  often  represented,  in  curious  and  rich  carving,  an 
entire  story  or  history. 

Many  of  the  manor  houses  which  were  built  in  fite  time  of 
Queen  Ehzabeth,  are  supposed  from  their  style,  having  two 
projecting  wings,  and  a  porch  in  the  middle,  to  have  been 
thus  built  to  represent  the  letter  E,  out  of  compliment  to  the 
queen. 

Commerce  flourished  in  this  century.  It  was  the  age  of 
nautical  adventure.  Bartholomew  Columbus  presented  him- 
self at  the  court  of  Henry  VII.,  to  plead  for  the  discovery  of 
a  New  World.  His  brother,  the  illustrious  Christopher 
Columbus,  was  invited  to  England :  but  his  long  suit  at  the 
Spanish  court  at  last  ended  in  success,  and  before  Bartholo- 
mew returned  with  the  invitation,  Columbus  had  discovered 
America  for  the  king  of  Spain.  Thus,  by  Divine  Providence, 
were  the  English  preserved  "  from  losing  their  industry  and 
commercial  spirit  in  the  mines  of  Mexico  and  Peru." 

Frequent  voyages  were  made  to  the  coasts  of  Brazil  and 
Guinea,  and  a  great  desire  was  manifested  to  discover  a 
passage  through  the  northern  seas  to  China.  One  expedition 
for  this  purpose  was  sent  out  under  Sir  Hugh  Willoughby, 
but  he  and  his  crew  were  frozen  to  death  in  a  harbor  in 
Lapland.      One  of  the  ships  made  her  way  to  Archangel, 


ENGLAND   DURING    THE    JSiXTEENTH    CENTURY.         229 

whence  the  captain,  E-ichard  Chancellor,  travelled  on  sledges 
to  Moscow,  had  an  interview  with  the  Czar,  and  laid  the 
foundation  of  a  profitable  trade  with  Russia.  Cod-fishing  on 
the  banks  of  Newfoundland  began  in  the  year  1536.  Later 
in  the  century,  English  ships  frequented  the  northern  seas  in 
search  of  whales. 

The  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  was  a  glorious  period  for  the 
commerce  and  maritime  prosperity  of  England.  Sir  Francis 
Drake  sailed  round  the  world.  He  was  gone  nearly  three 
years.  On  his  return,  the  queen  visited  him  on  board  his 
vessel,  and  conferred  on  the  fortunate  commander  the  honor 
of  knighthood.  The  ship  in  which  he  made  his  famous 
voyage  was  preserved  at  Deptford  for  many  years,  and,  when 
destroyed,  a  chair  was  constructed  of  one  of  the  planks,  and 
presented  to  the  University  of  Oxford.  Frobisher's  and 
Davis's  Straits  are  witnesses  to  the  present  day  of  the  disco- 
veries of  England's  bold  seamen.  The  naval  and  commercial 
fame  of  Sir  John  Hawkins  is  stained  by  his  engaging  in  the 
African  slave  trade.  In  the  year  1562,  he  sailed  to  the  coast 
of  Guinea,  filled  his  ships  with  negroes,  and  carried  them  to 
the  Spanish  colony  of  Ilispaniola,  where  they  were  sold  into 
slavery.  He  returned  to  England  with  a  fine  cargo  of 
"hides,  sugar,  ginger,  and  many  pearls." 

As  early  as  the  year  1556,  steps  had  been  taken  to  trade 
with  India  by  land.  English  ships  visited  the  islands  of 
Ceylon  and  Sumatra  in  1591,  but  it  was  not  until  the  last  day 
of  the  last  year  of  the  century,  that  the  East  India  Company 
was  founded.  On  that  day  a  little  party  of  London  merchants 
met  at  the  house  of  one  Groddard,  a  worthy  citizen  and 
alderman,  and  subscribed  a  capital  of  thirty  thousand  pounds 
for  a  ship  to  trade  to  the  "  Far  Indies."  Little  dreamed  they 
that  then  and  there  was  laid  the  foundation  of  the  mighty 
empire  of  British  India,  with  its  annual  revenue  of  twenty-six 
millions  of  pounds,  and  its  population  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty  millions  of  souls. 

The  discoveries  in  America  were  not  undervalued  by  the 
far-sighted  Elizabeth.  Aided  by  her  patronage,  the  gallant 
20 


230  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  and  other  distinguished  navigators,  ex- 
plored the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  new  continent,  and  took 
possession  of  it  for  England.  The  queen  named  the  country 
Virginia,  in  honor  of  herself,  and  made  many  attempts  to 
colonize  these  new  possessions.  They  were  unsuccessful,  and 
Elizabeth  died  before  the  first  permanent  settlement  had  been 
made  in  the  colony  of  the  virgin-queen. 

In  the  year  1566,  Sir  Thomas  Gresham,  an  enterprising 
merchant,  high  in  favor  with  Elizabeth,  began  the  building 
of  a  large  and  commodious  edifice,  where  merchants  might 
meet  for  the  transaction  of  business.  Three  streets  were 
purchased,  and  eighty  houses  destroyed,  to  furnish  space  for 
the  new  erection.  In  1570,  Queen  Elizabeth  visited  this 
building  in  great  state,  and  caused  it  to  be  proclaimed  by 
heralds  and  trumpets,  that  the  name  of  this  house  should 
henceforth  be  "  The  Royal  Exchange." 

The  manufacturing  industry  of  England  received  largely 
the  patronage  of  this  able  sovereign.  Of  the  pageants  which 
were  contrived  to  divert  their  gracious  queen,  none  pleased 
her  more  than  one  exhibited  by  the  woollen-weavers  of  Nor- 
wich. On  a  sloping  stage  were  represented  in  pictures  all 
the  processes  of  the  weaving  art.  At  one  end  of  the  stage 
sat  eight  little  girls  spinning  worsted  yarn,  whilst  at  the 
opposite  end  sat  eight  others  knitting  the  worsted  stockings. 
From  the  centre  a  boy  addressed  the  queen  in  verse,  im- 
ploring her  patronage  for  the  industry  of  the  town.  The 
following  is  one  stanza  of  the  poetry  thus  recited : 

"  We  bought  before,  the  things  -which  now  we  sell ;  ' 
These  slender  imps,*  their  works  do  pass  the  waves; 
God's  peace  and  thine,  we  hold  and  prosper  well ; 

Of  every  mouth  the  hands,  the  charges  saves. 
Thus  through  thy  help,  and  aid  of  power  divine 
Doth  Norwich  live,  whose  hearts  and  goods  are  thine." 

The  manufacture  of  pins  having  heads  was  established  in 

*  An  "  imp"  in  those  days  meant  simply  a  child. 


ENGLAND   DURING   THE    SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.        231 

Elizabeth's  reign.  Before  that  time,  ladies'  dresses  had  been 
fastened  with  clasps,  hooks  and  eyes,  and  "  skewers"  of  gold, 
silver,  or  brass.  These  last  were  of  course  very  small,  and 
probably  resembled  pins  without  heads. 

Questions. — What  is  said  of  Wolsey  in  connection  with  the  learn- 
ing of  this  age? — Name  some  of  the  colleges  founded  during  this 
century. — What  is  said  of  the  accomplishments  of  the  ladies  of  this 
age? — Where  had  schools  existed  prior  to  the  Reformation? — How 
was  the  want  of  schools  partially  supplied  when  these  were  broken 
up  ? — What  celebrated  painter  came  to  England  ? — Relate  the  anec- 
dote of  Holbein  and  the  courtier. — What  style  of  architecture  was 
now  introduced? — What  Italian  fashion  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
land ? — What  peculiarity  was  exhibited  in  the  manor  houses  of  this 
period? — What  motive  may  possibly  have  led  to  this  device? 

Relate  the  account  of  Bartholomew  Columbus's  embassy  to  Eng- 
land.— What  coasts  were  visited  by  English  mariners? — Relate  the 
history  of  Sir  Hugh  Willoughby's  expedition. — What  did  Sir  Francis 
Drake  accomplish? — By  what  conduct  did  Sir  John  Hawkins  mar 
his  commercial  fame? — When  was  the  East  India  Company  founded? 
— Describe  the  circumstances  of  this  foundation. — Describe  the  early 
attempts  to  found  a  colony  in  America. — In  whose  reign  were  pins, 
with  heads,  invented  ? — What  had  been  used  before  in  their  place  ? 


CHAPTER  XXXIX. 

CONDITION  OF  ENGLAND  DURING  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 

AGRICULTURE  —  MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS  —  AMUSEMENTS  —  CONDITION  OF 
LOAVKR  CLASSES  —  PARLIAMENT  —  COURTS  OF  LAW  —  ELIZABETH  AND 
HER    PEOPLE. 

During  the  earlier  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  great 
landholders  were  induced  to  convert  their  arable  land  into 
pasturage,  both  on  account  of  having  fewer  villains  than 
formerly  to  cultivate  it,  and  also  because  of  the  very  profitable 
demand  for  English  wool.  Frequently,  on  one  estate,  were 
to  be   found  sheep-farms  containing  flocks  of  from   ten   to 


232  HISTORY   OF  ENGLAND. 

twenty  thousand  sheep.  Hamlets  and  villages  were  deso- 
lated, or  only  occupied,  as  Latimer  informs  us,  by  a  shepherd 
and  his  dog.  In'om  the  middle  of  the  century  agriculture 
improved,  and  the  land  was  made  to  yield  more  than  it  had 
formerly  done.  Clover  was  introduced ;  hops  were  first  cul- 
tivated extensively,  and  many  new  vegetables,  such  as  salads, 
cabbages,  melons,  and  artichokes,  found  their  way  into  English 


Numerous  delicious  fruits  were  introduced  from  foreign 
countries.  Apricots  and  currants  from  Zante,  plums  from 
Italy ;  also  gooseberries  and  cherries.  To  the  charms  of  the 
flower-garden  were  added  the  gilly-flower,  carnation  pink, 
Flemish  and  musk  roses.  Pleasure  gardens  were  laid  out 
after  the  Italian  style  :  broad  terraces,  leading  by  steps  into 
the  beautiful  grounds  below,  which  were  ornamented  with 
statuary,  vases,  and  grottoes,  and  refreshed  by  the  play  of 
water  in  numerous  marble  fountains. 

The  condition  of  the  yeomanry  improved  greatly  towards 
the  close  of  this  period.  They  dwelt  in  larger  and  better 
houses,  frequently  built  of  stone  or  brick.  Pewter  plates 
were  substituted  for  wooden  trenchers,  and  the  hard,  coarse 
bed  and  bolster  gave  place  to  good  feather  beds.  A  writer 
of  this  age  laments  these  improvements,  complaining  that, 
whereas,  '^  when  the  walls  of  houses  were  of  wattled  willow, 
we  had  oaken  men ;"  now,  luxury  had  made  them  efieminate. 
At  Christmas  they  fared  particularly  well : — 

"Good  bread,  and  good  drink,  a  good  fire  in  the  hall; 
Brawn,  pudding  and  sauce,  and  good  mustard  withal; 
Beef,  mutton,  and  pork,  shred  pies  of  the  best; 
Pig,  veal,  goose,  and  capon,  and  turkey  well  drest ; 
Cheese,  apples,  and  nuts,  jolly  carols  to  hear, 
Asthen  in  the  country  is  counted  good  cheer." 

If  such  was  the  improvement  in  the  condition  of  the  yeo' 
men  of  England,  the  style  of  the  nobles  was  magnificent  in 
proportion.  Great  was  the  pomp  and  stately  ceremony  which 
surrounded  the  royal  table  of  Queen  Bess.     Gentlemen  pros. 


ENGLAND    DURING    THE    SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.        233 

trated  themselves  with  the  utmost  reverence  before  placing 
the  cloth  upon  it;  ladies  dressed  in  white  silk  rubbed  the 
plates  with  bread  and  salt;  tall,  stout,  scarlet-clad  yeomen 
of  the  guard  brought  in  the  twenty-four  courses  on  gilded 
dishes ;  the  lady-taster  gave  to  each  a  mouthful  of  the  dish 
he  brought,  in  order  to  guard  against  poison  \  ladies,  splen- 
didly dressed,  carried  the  meats  from  this  sumptuous  table  to 
an  inner  room,  where  the  queen  dined  alone,  or  with  a  few 
of  her  ladies.  During  all  this  ceremony,  twelve  trumpets  and 
two  kettle-drums  resounded  through  the  royal  dining-hall. 

Cloths  and  napkins  were  among  the  improvements  in  the 
table-furniture ;  forks  were  not  yet  introduced.  A  complete 
change  had  taken  place  in  the  style  of  feasting.  All  the 
boisterousness,  the  tumbling,  jesting,  and  buiFoonery  of  the 
banquets  of  a  former  age  were  discarded,  and  the  utmost 
stateliness,  almost  solemnity,  of  demeanor  prevailed  among  the 
guests.  The  feasts  of  the  lord  mayor  of  London,  who  repre- 
sented, as  it  were,  the  hospitality  of  the  city,  were  so  famous 
for  their  good  cheer,  that  "  I  have  dined  as  well  as  my  lord 
mayor,"  has  passed  into  a  proverb. 

Furniture  was  still  scanty.  King  Henry  VIII. 's  chamber, 
besides  a  bed  and  cupboard,  contained  only  a  "  stool,  a  pair 
of  andirons,  and  a  small  steel  mirror  covered  with  yellow 
velvet."  Turkey  carpets  were  introduced,  but  they  were 
used  chiefly  as  table-covers,  and  the  floors  continued  to  be 
strewn  with  rushes.  A  green  cloth  or  carpet  was  spread 
before  the  throne,  and  those  who  received  the  honor  of 
knighthood  at  coronations,  were  thence  called  carpet  knights. 

Fashions  in  dress  varied  so  greatly  in  this  century,  that  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  describe  them.  The  pictures  of  the 
celebrated  men  and  women  of  Henry  YIII.'s  and  Elizabeth's 
reigns  have  made  us  familiar  with  some  of  these  styles.  The 
rufl"s,  which  %xm.  such  a  striking  part  of  the  dress  in  the 
Elizabethan  era,  were  at  first  made  of  linen.  When  the 
queen  began  to  wear  them  of  lawn  and  cambric,  she  found 
great  difficulty  in  getting  them  suflaciently  stiff.  At  length  a 
20* 


234  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

Dutch  woman,  named  Mistress  Dingham  Vander-Plasse,  who 
possessed  great  skill  in  starching,  was  invited  to  England  at 
the  queen's  request,  and  succeeded  in  giving  to  the  royal  ruff 
its  required  stiffness. 

Worsted  and  silk  stockings  came  into  wear  towards  the 
close  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  and  a  slovenly  kind  of  slipper, 
called  pantoffles,  was  much  worn ;  they  were  either  of  velvet 
or  leather,  of  the  brightest  colors,  and  embroidered  with  gold 
and  silver.  Perfumed  gloves,  also  richly  embroidered,  were 
worn.  The  preposterous  head-dresses  of  the  former  century 
were  replaced  by  more  modest  caps  or  bonnets  of  velvet,  and 
felt  hats  with  conical  crowns  came  into  fashion.  When 
travelling,  ladies  wore,  to  guard  their  complexions,  black 
velvet  masks  furnished  with  eye-glasses.  False  hair  was 
common,  particularly  as  the  fashion  in  the  color  of  the  hair 
varied  greatly.  The  teeth  of  the  ladies  in  Elizabeth's  time 
were  not  false,  but  they  were  often  so  black  and  defective  as 
greatly  to  mar  the  beauty  of  the  mouth.  This  arose  partly 
from  the  use  of  tobacco,  which  Indian  weed  had  been  intro- 
duced into  England  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  The  fashion  of 
smoking  became  so  universal,  that  even  ladies  practised  it. 

After  the  decline  of  the  tournament,  riding  at  the  ring  and 
fencing  became  favorite  amusements.  In  the  first,  the  knight, 
whilst  gracefully  managing  his  horse,  aimed  his  lance  at  a 
small  ring  fastened  on  a  post;  the  object  being  to  carry  it  off 
at  the  point  of  the  weapon,  whilst  the  horse  was  bearing  the 
rider  at  the  height  of  his  speed.  Pageants  were  much  in 
vogue,  especially  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  Those 
arranged  by  the  Earl  of  Leicester  to  entertain  his  royal  mis- 
tress, during  her  visit  to  Kenilworth  Castle,  were  costly  and 
magnificent  beyond  any  others  of  which  we  read,  even  in 
this  age  of  splendid  festivities.  Water  pageants  were  some- 
times exhibited  on  the  Thames,  when  the  gay  decorations  of 
the  barges  and  music  added  to  the  attractions  of  the  scene. 

Festivals  of  all  kinds  were  celebrated  with  great  merriment. 
Weddings,  both  among  high  and  low,  were  especially  joyous 


ENGLAND    DURING    THE    SIXTEENTH    CENTURY.        235 

occasions.  In  the  villages  the  bride  was  led  to  the  church  by 
her  companions,  all  decked  in  rosemary,  laces,  and  ribbons. 
Before  her  was  borne  the  silver  bride-cup,  filled  with  wine,  in 
which  was  placed  a  branch  of  gilded  rosemary.  Others  of  the 
village  maidens  carried  huge  bride-cakes  and  gilded  garlands 
of  wheat,  whilst  the  air  rang  with  music  and  the  joyous  shouts 
of  the  wedding  company. 

The  May-day  festival  was  a  season  of  great  rejoicing 
throughout  merry  England.  Bands  of  youths  and  maidens 
would  resort  to  the  woods,  and,  decking  the  May-pole  with 
gay  garlands,  bring  it  home  on  May-morning,  drawn  by 
twenty  or  forty  yoke  of  oxen,  having  their -horns  adorned 
with  garlands  of  flowers.  Gay  scarfs  and  ribbons  completed 
the  decorations  of  the  May-pole,  around  which,  in  their  best 
and  gayest  attire,  danced  the  young  people  of  the  village. 

Morris  dances,  and  the  milk-maid's  dance,  ranked  high  in 
favor  among  the  amusements  of  May-day.  The  actors  in  the 
morris  dances  had  their  garments,  which  were  of  the  gayest 
description,  hung  with  little  bells,  varying  in  size  and  tone. 
This  dance  is  supposed  to  be  of  Moorish  origin,  and  intro- 
duced into  England  during  the  middle  ages.  The  milk-maid's 
dance  was  performed  by  the  milk-maids,  with  all  the  silver- 
ware they  could  borrow,  piled  in  a  pyramid  on  their  heads. 
In  this  style  they  danced  from  house  to  house,  receiving  a  few 
pence  from  each  of  their  customers. 

Whilst  we  are  dazzled  by  the  splendor  of  courts,  and  watch 
with  interest  the  rise  and  increasing  prosperity  of  the  middle 
classes  in  England  during  this  century,  we  must  not  forget 
that  there  was  a  large  body  of  people  whose  condition  was 
truly  miserable.  Begging  and  robbery  were  so  frequent,  even 
in  ^'  the  glorious  days  of  good  Queen  Bess,"  and  the  laws 
against  them  of  such  barbarous  severity,  that  a  year  seldom 
passed  in  which  hundreds  of  criminals  were  not  condemned  to 
the  gallows  or  to  slavery. 

Among  the  statutes  passed  against  beggars  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.,  was  one  leveled  at  a  strange  race  of  people 


l^o6  HISTORY   OP   ENGLAND. 

called  gypsies  or  Egyptians,  because  they  were  supposed  to 
have  come  originally  from  Egypt-  These  "outlandish" 
people,  as  the  statute  calls  them,  wandered  from  shire  to 
shire,  telling  fortunes  and  committing  petty  robberies,  until 
they  became  such  disturbers  of  the  peace  that  they  were 
ordered  to  quit  the  country.  The  law  commanded  that  they 
should  depart  within  sixteen  days,  under  penalty  of  imprison- 
ment and  seizure  of  goods.  Many,  however,  contrived  to 
remain,  and  to  this  day  the  gipsy  camp,  pitched  on  the  bar- 
ren heath,  attests  that  the  descendants  of  these  strange  aliens 
have  not  yet  deserted  English  ground. 

During  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  the  parliament  seems  to 
have  been  completely  awed  by  the  power  of  that  imperious 
sovereign.  Both  Lords  and  Commons  bent  before  his  wrath, 
and  passed  the  most  contradictory  and  obnoxious  bills,  with 
scarcely  a  dissenting  voice.  The  Commons,  however,  were 
gradually  growing  more  important  and  powerful :  their  assent 
had  become  necessary  to  the  passage  of  bills  granting  supplies 
of  money.  On  one  occasion,  even  in  the  terror-inspiring  days 
of  Henry  VIIL,  they  gave  evidence  of  a  spirit  of  resistance  to 
unjust  demands. 

To  carry  on  the  war  with  France,  the  king  demanded 
the  sum  of  eight  hundred  thousand  pounds,  to  be  raised 
by  levying  a  property  tax,  at  the  rate  of  twenty  per  cent. 
The  Commons,  even  though  Cardinal  Wolsey  himself  appeared 
in  their  midst  to  enforce  the  demand,  resisted,  and  would 
only  grant  the  king  a  tenth,  with  which  he  was  forced  to  be 
content.  The  spirit  of  the  Commons  was  upheld  by  the 
popular  feeling  among  the  citizens  of  London.  It  is  said, 
that  during  the  debate  on  granting  the  king  this  supply, 
citizens  would  accost  commoners  in  the  street,  saying,  '^  Sirs, 
will  ye  grant  four  shillings  in  the  pound?  Do  it,  and  take 
our  threats  and  curses  home  with  you  to  your  households." 

In  Henry  VII.'s  reign,  the  king's  council,  when  exercising 
criminal  jurisdiction,  held  its  sittings  in  an  apartment  at 
Westminster,  called,  from  the  decoration  of  the  ceiling,  The 


ENGLAND  DURING  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.   237 

Star  Chamber.  This  name  was  now  applied  to  the  court 
itself,  which,  being  entirely  under  the  sovereign's  control, 
gradually  increased  its  power  and  authority,  until  it  possessed 
more  than  any  other  jurisdiction  in  the  realm,  and  became 
an  instrument,  in  the  hands  of  kings  and  ministers,  of  great 
oppression. 

An  ecclesiastical  court,  called  the  Court  of  High  Commis- 
sion, was  'established  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign.  It  had 
exclusive  jurisdiction  concerning  spiritual  matters,  the  pun- 
ishment of  heresies,  the  reforming  of  errors,  &c.  These  two 
tribunals,  the  Star  Chamber  and  Court  of  High  Commission, 
became,  in  another  generation,  most  tyrannical  in  their  opera- 
tion upon  a  large  class  of  English  subjects. 

Elizabeth,  towards  the  close  of  her  reign,  granted  to  favorite 
courtiers,  monopolies^  or  exclusive  privileges,  to  sell  certain 
very  necessary  articles  of  daily  consumption.  This  was  hurt- 
ful to  trade,  and  oppressive  to  the  people.  When  the  Commons 
complained  of  these  monopolies,  some  members  were  disposed 
to  defend  the  queen's  right  to  grant  them ;  but  when  it  came 
to  the  ears  of  Elizabeth  that  her  Commons  were  thus  greatly 
displeased,  this  wise  sovereign  withdrew  her  grants'of  monopo- 
lies, and  won  back  the  affections  of  the  people.  On  another 
occasion  she  captivated  her  subjects'  hearts,  by  remarking, 
when  she  refused  some  supplies  which  were  voted  her,  "  that 
money  in  the  purses  of  her  subjects  was  as  good  to  her  as  in 
her  own  exchequer." 

Says  an  historian  :  ^'  In  the  long  line  of  sceptred  ancestors 
of  whom  Elizabeth  was  the  living  representative,  it  would  be 
difficult  to  select  one,  not  merely  from  the  Tudors  and  the 
Stuarts,  who  all  sink  into  dwarf-like  insignificance  beside  her, 
but  even  from  the  nobler  and  mightier  Plantagenets — the 
men  of  iron, 

*  of  mailed  breast, 
And  gauntlet-hand  and  jewelled  crest,' 

who  could  be  placed  on  the  same  level  for  the  highest  quali- 


238  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

ties  befitting  a  monarch,  with  this,  England's  deep-minded, 
high-spirited,  stout-hearted,  woman  king  I" 

Questions. — What  is  said  of  agriculture  during  this  century  ? 

What  new  vegetable  productions  were  introduced  and  cultivated  ? — 
Name  the  ditiPerent  fruits  brought  into  England. — What  flowers 
added  new  beauty  to  the  gardens  ? — What  is  said  of  the  condition 
of  the  yeomanry  ? — What  improvement  took  place  in  matters  per- 
taining to  domestic  comfort  ? — Repeat  the  lines  describing  the  good 
cheer  at  Christmas. 

Describe  the  ceremony  attending  the  royal  table. — How  did  the 
style  of  feasting  differ  from  that  of  a  previous  age  ? — What  is  said 
of  the  lord  mayor's  feasts? — Describe  the  furniture  of  King  Henry 
VIII. 's  chamber. — How  were  carpets  used? — With  what  were  the 
floors  covered  ? — What  article  of  dress  was  much  Avorn  in  Elizabeth's 
time  ? — Describe  the  head-coverings  of  this  period. — What  is  said 
of  the  teeth  of  the  women  of  this  age  ? — Of  the  practice  of  smoking  ? 

How  wei*e  festivals  observed  in  these  days  ? — Describe  a  village 
bridal  procession. — Describe  the  celebration  of  May-day. — Name 
two  dances  much  in  favor  with  the  people  during  these  festivities. — 
What  is  said  of  the  condition  of  the  middle  classes  during  this  cen- 
tury ?— What  of  the  condition  of  the  lower  classes  ?— How  was  it  in 
the  days  of  Elizabeth  ? — Against  what  people  was  a  law  passed  in 
Henry  VIII.'s  time? 

What  was  the  condition  of  parliament  during  Henry  VIII.'s  reign? 
— What  is  said  of  the  progress  of  the  Commons  ? — What  spirit  did 
they  display  in  Henry  VIII.'s  reign? — Relate  the  instance  given 
of  this  resistance. — What  court  was  established  in  Elizabeth's  reign  ? 
— WHiat  did  Elizabeth  bestow  on  favorite  courtiers  ? — W' hat  are  mo- 
nopolies?—Who  complained  of  these  monopolies? — Repeat  the  eulo- 
gium  of  an  historian  on  Elizabeth's  character  ? 


JAMES   I.  2B9 


PART  IX. 

ENGLAND  DURING  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY. 

JAMES  I.— CHARLES  I.— CROMWELL— CHARLES  IL— 
JAMES  IL— WILLIAM  IIL 

A.  D.   1603—1702. 

"Then  dawned  the  period  destined  to  confine 
The  surge  of  wild  Prerogative,  to  raise 
A  mount  restraining  its  imperious  rage, 
And  bid  the  raving  deep  no  farther  flow.'* 

Thomson. 


CHAPTER  XL. 

THE   FIRST    ELEVEN   YEARS   OF   JAMES   I.'s   REIGN. 

CONSPIRACIES — GUNPOWDER  PLOT — PREROGATIVE — THE    KING'S    TASTES — 
CECIL, — BACON — LADY  ARABELLA  STUART. 

The  plague  was  raging  in  London ;  the  weather  was  dark 
and  rainy;  and  altogether  gloomy  was  the  aspect  of  the  25th 
July,  1603,  when  the  first  of  the  unhappy  race  of  Stuart  w\as 
crowned  king  of  England. 

At  the  accession  of  James  I.,  there  were  three  religious 
parties  in  the  kingdom  :  the  Established  Church,  the  Roman 
Catholics,  and  the  Puritans.  The  Papists  hoped  for  the 
favor  of  the  king,  because  of  the  religion  of  his  mother; 
and  the  Puritans,  because  James  had  been  so  much  indebted 
to  the  Presbyterians  of  Scotland,  and  had,  it  was  aifirmed, 
given  them  promises  of  support.  James  deceived  the  hopes 
of  both  these  parties,  giving  all  his  countenance  and  favor 
to   the   Established   Church.     Very  soon,   the   disappointed, 


240  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

both  of  religious  and  political  parties,  concerted  plots  against 
the  king.  These  were  discovered,  and  the  parties  punished. 
Among  those  who  fell  victims  to  these  consj)iracies  was  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh.  He  was  charged  with  conspiring  against 
the  life  of  the  king,  designing  to  overthrow  the  government 
and  religion  of  the  realm,  and  to  place  the  Lady  Arabella 
Stuart  (a  descendant  of  Henry  VII.)  on  the  throne.  Raleigh, 
who  was  one  of  the  greatest  geniuses  of  his  age,  had  rendered 
glorious  services  to  the  crown,  as  a  navigator,  a  discoverer, 
and  a  brave  defender  of  his  country.  All  these  claims  were 
disregarded.  He  was  brought  to  trial  before  a  court  com- 
posed of  the  bitterest  of  his  enemies;  and,  notwithstanding 
one  of  the  most  eloquent  defences  that  was  ever  pleaded  in  a 
court  of  justice,  this  brave  man  was  declared  guilty,  and 
committed  to  the  Tower. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  year  1604,  about  twenty  Roman 
Catholics,  exasperated  by  the  severe  laws  passed  against  their 
faith,  entered  into  a  conspiracy  to  blow  up  the  parliament 
house.  The  ringleader  of  the  Gunpowder  Plot,  as  it  is  gene- 
rally called,  was  Robert  Catesby,  a  country  gentleman,  of 
ancient  family  and  good  estate.  The  conspirators  hired  a 
cellar  under  the  parliament  house,  and  placed  in  it 
thirty-six  barrels  of  gunpowder,  covered  with  faggots 
of  wood.  One  Guy  Fawkes,  a  Flemish  soldier  of  fortune, 
and  a  bigoted  Papist,  undertook  to  pay  daily  visits  to  the 
cellar,  to  see  that  all  was  right.  The  meeting  of  parliament, 
deferred  from  time  to  time,  was  to  take  place  on  the  5th  of 
November,  1605,  and  that  day  was  fixed  for  the  execution  of 
the  dreadful  design. 

The  conspirators  intended,  if  possible,  to  save  one  of  the 
king's  sons.  Prince  Charles,  from  destruction,  but  if  this 
could  not  be  done,  his  sister,  the  Princess  Elizabeth,  was  to 
be  proclaimed  queen.  Ten  days  previous.  Lord  Mounteagle, 
a  Roman  Catholic  gentleman,  and  member  of  parliament, 
received  a  letter  warning  him  not  to  go  to  the  House  of  Lords 
on  the  5th.  The  nobleman  showed  the  letter  to  Sir  Robert 
Cecil  (a  son  of  Elizabeth's  wise  statesman.  Lord  Burleigh), 


JAMES   I.  241 

and  the  latter  carried  it  to  the  king.  Suspicions  were  aroused. 
On  the  afternoon  of  the  4th  of  November,  the  lord  chamber- 
lain and  Lord  Mounteagle  went  to  examine  the  vaults  under 
the  parliament  house.  They  found  there  Guy  Fawkes,  whom 
they  described  as  "a  very  tall  and  desperate  fellow,"  but,  after 
a  few  words,  departed,  leaving  him  unmolested.  At  two 
o'clock  the  next  morning,  as  Guy  Fawkes  opened  the  door 
of  the  cellar,  he  was  seized  and  bound  by  a  party  of  soldiers, 
commanded  by  a  magistrate  of  Westminster.  He  had  no 
time  to  light  the  slow  matches  which  were  found  about  his 
person.  Behind  the  cellar-door  a  dark  lantern  was  discovered 
burning.  Although  put  to  the  torture,  Fawkes  would  confess 
nothing.  The  other  conspirators,  however,  betrayed  them- 
selves by  flight.  They  all  came  to  a  miserable  end.  Some, 
among  whom  was  Catesby,  were  shot  whilst  defending  them- 
selves against  those  sent  to  seize  them,  and  many  perished  on 
the  scaffold.  The  day  of  this  great  deliverance  of  the  king 
and  parliament  of  England  is  still  observed  as  a  day  of  public 
thanksgiving  in  the  English  church.  Among  the  populace, 
bonfires  are  lighted  on  the  night  of  the  5th  November,  and 
Guy  Fawkes  is  burned  in  effigy.  The  laws  against  the 
lloman  Catholics  were  made  more  severe  than  ever. 

King  James  I.  had  a  very  high  idea  of  the  royal  preroga- 
tivej  or  the  rights  claimed  for  kings  because  they  are  kings, 
and  over  which  neither  parliament  nor  law  could  have  control. 
He  held  the  sentiments  which  Shakspeare  places  in  the  mouth 
of  King  Richard  II. : — 

"Not  all  the  water  in  the  rough  rude  sea 
Can  wash  the  balm  from  an  anointed  king : 
The  breath  of  worldly  men  cannot  depose 
The  deputy  elected  by  the  Lord." 

James  had  written  books  to  prove  that  kings  reign  by 
divine  right :  and  he  taught  therein,  that  it  is  the  province 
of  monarchs  to  rule  by  their  own  absolute  will,  and  that 
the  duty  of  subjects  is  to  obey.  In  these  exalted  notions 
of  the  right  of  kings,  James  was  upheld  by  the  bishops 
21  Q 


242  HISTORY   OP   ENGLAND. 

generally,  and  by  the  greater  part  of  the  nobility.  The 
Commons  alone  remained  true  to  the  trust  reposed  in  them 
by  the  nation,  and  fought  for  their  rights.  -Unlike  the  wise 
Elizabeth,  whose  economy  rendered  her  less  dependent  upon 
her  parliaments  for  supphes,  and  conse(|uently  less  liable  to 
have  her  prerogative  called  in  question,  James  I.  was  extrava- 
gant, and  demanded  from  the  nation  large  grants  of  money. 
"Whenever  a  parliament  was  called,  the  sturdy  Commons, 
before  voting  a  supply,  demanded  a  redress  of  grievances. 

The  grievances  of  which  the  nation  complained  were,  that 
the  king  claimed,  in  virtue  of  his  prerogative,  to  lay  taxes 
and  impose  duties,  without  the  consent  of  parliament ; — that 
his  majesty  caused  his  royal  proclamations  to  take  the  place 
of  the  laws; — and  allowed  the  Court  of  High  Commission  to 
exercise  great  tyranny.  So  great  was  the  king's  need  of 
money,  that,  when  he  could  get  none  from  the  Commons,  he 
chose  other  and  unusual  methods  of  procuring  it.  He  sold 
patents  of  nobility,  and  created  a  new  title,  that  of  baronet, 
which  he  made  hereditary  and  sold  for  a  thousand  pounds. 

King  James,  although  he  prided  himself  on  his  knowledge 
of  government,  and  wrote,  as  he  believed,  very  wise  books  on 
the  subject,  and  was  called  by  his  flatterers  the  Scottish 
Solomon,  had,  in  reality,  very  little  understanding,  and  still 
less  taste,  for  the  duties  which  attend  the  faithful  administra- 
tion of  a  kingdom.  He  was  passionately  fond  of  hunting, 
and  issued  a  proclamation  that  on  hunting-days  (and  they 
took  up  nearly  half  his  time)  he  should  not  be  disturbed  by 
affairs  of  state. 

His  subjects  were  loud  in  their  complaints,  which  were  not 
unmingled  with  satires.  One  day,  whilst  he  was  hunting  at 
Royston,  a  favorite  dog,  named  Jowler,  was  missing.  The 
king  was  much  disturbed,  until  the  following  morning,  when, 
greatly  to  his  delight,  the  hound  reappeared.  Round  the 
animal's  neck  was  tied  a  paper,  on  which  was  written  the 
following  petition :  "  Good  Mr.  Jowler,  we  pray  you  speak  to 
the  king  (for  he  hears  you  every  day,  and  so  doth  he  not  us), 
that  it  will  please  his  majesty  to  go  back  to  London,  for  else 


JAMES    I.  248 

the  country  will  be  undone :  all  our  provision  is  spent  already, 
and  we  are  not  able  to  entertain  him  longer."  Dressed  in  his 
hunting-garb  of  green,  with  a  little  feather  in  his  cap,  and  a 
hunting-bugle  by  his  side,  the  king  of  England  thus  pursued 
the  pleasures  of  the  chase,  and  left  the  government  of  his 
kingdom  in  the  hands  of  ambitious  courtiers. 

Sir  Robert  Cecil,  secretary  of  state,  had  at  first  the 
V  greatest  influence  in  public  affairs.  In  1612  he  died, 
adding  another  to  the  many  witnesses  of  the  vanity  of  earthly 
glory :  "■  Ease  and  pleasur'e  quake  to  hear  of  death ;  but  my 
life,  full  of  cares  and  miseries,  desireth  to  be  dissolved  :"  were 
his  dying  words.  Coke,  the  attorney-general,  and  Sir  Francis 
Bacon,  two  celebrated  lawyers,  exercised  also  great  control  in 
state  aff"airs. 

Bacon,  though  first  among  philosophers,  as  a  courtier  and 
a  statesman  was  unprincipled  and  corrupt.  "  No  name  in 
British  annals  is  more  illustrious  than  his,  and  none  is  shaded 
with  more  lasting  shame."  Says  a  writer  :  "  The  diff"erence 
between  the  soaring  angel  and  the  creeping  snake,  was  but  a 
type  of  the  diff"erence  between  Bacon  the  philosopher  and 
Bacon  the  attorney-general — Bacon  seeking  for  truth,  and 
Bacon  seeking  for  the  seals."  And  the  poet  Pope,  warning 
against  mere  greatness  of  intellect,  exclaims  : 

"If  parts  allure  thee,  think  how  Bacon  shined, 
The  wisest,  brightest,  meanest  of  mankind." 

He  rose  from  one  degree  of  dignity  to  another,  until  he 
became  lord  chancellor,  and  received  the  titles  of  Viscount 
St.  Albans  and  Baron  Yerulam.  Towards  the  close  of  James' 
reign,  Sir  Francis  Bacon  was  accused  of  bribery  and  corrup- 
tion in  his  duties  as  chancellor.  He  was  tried  and  found 
guilty.  To  a  deputation  of  lords  who  waited  upon  him,  he 
confessed  his  guilt,  saying :  "It  is  my  act, — my  heart, — my 
hand.     Oh  !  my  lords,  be  merciful  to  a  broken  reed." 

In  this  reign  perished  another  victim  to  the  jealousy  of  the 
monarch  for  his  title  to  the  throne — the  Lady  Arabella  Stuart. 


244  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

Like  the  victims  of  preceding  reigns,  she  was  beautiful,  ac- 
compUshed,  and  unambitious,  her  only  crime  being  that  she, 
too,  although  in  a  more  remote  degree  than  James,  was 
descended  from  Margaret,  the  daughter  of  Henry  VII.  As 
long  as  she  remained  single,  although  closely  watched,  the 
Lady  x\.rabella  was  not  persecuted,  but  on  her  marriage  with 
Sir  William  Seymour,  she  was  taken  into  custody,  and  her 
husband  was  sent  to  the  Tower  Both  contrived  to  escape. 
Sir  William  Seymour,  in  the  disguise  of  a  physician,  managed 
to  get  safely  to  Flanders,  but  the  unfortunate  Lady 
Arabella  was  seized  midway  across  the  Channel,  and 
brought  back  to  England,  where,  after  four  sad  years  of 
captivity  in  the  Tower,  she  died  insane. 

Questions. — What  melancholy  circumstances  attended  the  acces- 
sion of  James  I.? — Name  the  religious  parties  then  existing. — De- 
scribe the  expectations  of  each. — Which  party  did  James  favor? — 
What  misfortunes  befell  Sir  Walter  Raleigh? — Relate  the  history 
of  the  Gunpowder  Plot. — What  effect  had  this  conspiracy  upon  the 
condition  of  the  Roman  Catholics? 

On  what  subject  had  King  James  very  exalted  notions? — What  is 
meant  by  pi-erogative  ? — What  doctrine  did  James  teach  in  his  writ- 
ings?— W^ho  agreed  with  the  king  in  these  views? — What  body  in  the 
nation  opposed  these  ideas  of  royal  prerogative  ? — To  what  did  the 
king's  extravagance  frequently  compel  him  ?— How  did  the  Commons 
act  when  applied  to  for  money? — Describe  the  grievances  of  which 
the  Commons  complained.— What  strange  and  new  method  did  he 
take  to  procure  money? — In  what  respects  was  James  unfitted  for 
the  care  of  a  kingdom  ? — In  what  pursuit  did  he  employ  much  time  ? 

What  able  minister  conducted  the  affairs  of  state  in  the  early  part 
of  this  reign  ? — Repeat  the  dying  words  of  this  statesman. — Describe 
the  chai-acter  of  Lord  Bacon  — Repeat  Pope's  lines  on  this  subject. — 
Give  the  sketch  of  his  history. — Relate  the  story  of  Lady  Arabella 
Stuart. 


x^- 

^^ 

•    :t- 

JAMES  I. 

^e^  245 

^^"^  ^^ 

W^    '^-^ 

CHAPTER  XLI. 

^^ 

THE   LAST   ELEVEN    YEARS   OF   JAMES 

I.  S  REIGN. 

THE  king's    favorite — THE    PRINCESS    ELIZABETH — EPISCOPACY   IN   SCOT- 
LAND— SIR  WALTER  RALEIGH — MATRIMONIAL  NEGOTIATIONS. 

Besides  the  able,  although  unprincipled  statesmen,  men- 
tioned in  the  preceding  chapter,  James  lavished  honors  and 
offices  on  still  more  unworthy  favorites.  The  first  of  these 
was  Robert  Carr,  a  Scotch  lad  of  great  beauty,  whom  an  acci- 
dent at  a  tilting-match  threw  at  the  king's  feet.  James,  find- 
ing the  education  of  this  boy  imperfect,  even  condescended 
to  become  his  Latin  tutor,  giving  him  a  lesson  every  morning. 
Carr  was  knighted,  received  presents  and  honors,  and  soon 
grew  so  high  in  favor,  that  nothing  was  to  be  obtained  at 
court,  but  through  his  influence.  He  was  made  Viscount 
Rochester,  and,  after  the  death  of  Cecil,  became  lord  chamber- 
lain, and  exercised,  in  eflfect,  the  power  of  a  prime  minister. 

In  the  year  1612,  the  Count  Palatine,  a  German  prince, 
came  into  England  to  marry  the  Princess  Elizabeth.  This 
marriage  was  celebrated  with  great  splendor.  Among  the 
amusements  was  a  water-pageant,  gotten  up  by  the  gentlemen 
of  Gray's  Inn  and  the  Inner  Temple,  designed  to  represent 
the  marriage  of  the  river  Thames  with  the  Rhine.  The 
Princess  Elizabeth  accompanied  her  husband  to  Germany, 
where,  in  1619,  he  was  elected  king  of  Bohemia,  by  \S\Q 
Protestants  of  that  country.  The  Roman  Catholic  emperor 
of  Austria  made  war  upon  Bohemia  in  consequence. 

1630.  . 

The  short-lived  monarch  was  driven  from  his  throne, 
and  Elizabeth,  unaided  by  her  father,  the  English  king, 
became  a  fugitive  in  a  castle  on  the  Rhine. 

The  year  following  the  marriage  of  the  Princess  Elizabeth, 
the  fiivorite  Rochester,  now  created  Earl  of  Somerset,  was 
united  to  the  Countess  of  Essex.     This  marriage  was  opposed 
%\* 


246  HISTORY   OF    ENGLAND. 

by  Sir  Thomas  Overburj,  Somerset's  intimate  friend,  which 
opposition  being  reported  to  the  beautiful  but  vindictive 
countess,  she  determined  on  revenge.  Charges  were  brought 
against  Overbury.  He  was  thrown  into  the  Tower,  where 
before  the  marriage,  he  died  of  poison,  administered,  it  was 
whispered,  by  the  agents  of  the  wicked  countess.  After  this 
marriage,  Somerset's  spirits  became  clouded;  probably  the 
death  of  Overbury  weighed  upon  his  mind.  He  lost  the 
affection  of  the  king,  which  was  bestowed  upon  George  Vil- 
liers,  a'  new  favorite,  whom  the  enemies  of  Somerset  had 
introduced  at  court.  The  fallen  earl  and  his  countess  were 
now  openly  accused  of  the  murder  of  Overbury.  They  were 
brought  to  trial,  and  received  sentence  of  death;  but  a  royal 
pardon  having  been  granted,  this  guilty  pair,  after  some  years' 
imprisonment,  retired  from  court,  and  passed  the  remaining 
years  of  their  life  in  obscurity. 

The  laws  passed  against  Puritans,  and  all  dissenters  from 
the  Established  Church,  were  exceedingly  severe  in  this  reign. 
Not  satisfied  with  upholding  Episcopacy  in  England,  James 
visited  Scotland,  to  establish  it  there.  The  people  of  Scot- 
land regarded  him  as  a  traitor,  both  to  the  principles  in  which 
he  had  been  educated,  and  to  the  promises  which  he  had  made. 
He  appointed  bishops,  and  ordered  festivals  to  be  celebrated; 
but,  so  far  from  establishing  Episcopacy,  the  people 
clung  more  fondly  than  ever  to  their  Presbyterian 
Church ;  and  James  only  began  a  religious  struggle,  which, 
in  the  reign  of  his  son  and  successor,  was  continued  in  rebel- 
lion and  bloodshed.  On  his  return  to  England,  James  pub- 
lished a  "  Book  of  Sports,"  commanding  certain  games,  such 
as  wrestling,  morris-dancing  and  archery,  to  be  practised  on 
Sundays,  "  after  evening  prayers  ended."  The  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  and  many  others  of  the  clergy,  disapproved 
of  this  desecration  of  the  Lord's-Day.  It  greatly  shocked 
the  feelings  of  the  Puritans,  and  tended  to  widen  the  separa- 
tion between  them  and  the  Established  Church. 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh  had  now  languished  for  thirteen  years 
in  prison.     He  had  cheered  the  weary  hours  of  captivity  by 


JAMES  I.  247 

literary  pursuits,  and  had  written,  within  the  walls  of  the 
Tower,  a  History  of  the  World.  With  what  eager  interest 
he  must  have  listened  to  the  adventures  of  a  kindred  spirit, 
the  daring  John  Smith,  and  learned  of  the  first  permanent 
settlement  in  that  New  World,  towards  which  his  efforts  and 
hopes  had  been  for  many  years  directed !  And  how  he  must 
have  longed  to  share  with  the  Jamestown  colonists,  the  honor 
of  planting  the  first  English  home  in  that  land,  the  beauty 
of  which  he  had  so  often  praised,  and  to  which  he  had  been 
the  pioneer  I 

His  daring  and  adventurous  spirit  was  as  high  and  fresh  as 
ever;  and  in  the  year  1615,  he  proposed,  on  condition  of  re- 
covering his  liberty,  to  fit  out  an  expedition  to  Guiana,  to 
discover  a  gold-mine,  which  he  believed  to  exist  there.  He 
obtained  the  consent  of  the  king,  but  a  pardon  was  refused ; 
and  the  brave  and  accomplished  adventurer  left  England  on 
the  28th  March,  1617,  with  a  sentence  of  condemnation 
hanging  over  his  head. 

The  expedition  was  unfortunate.  Many  of  the  men  died 
of  disease,  and  many  others  deserted.  A  detachment  sailed 
up  the  Orinoco,  and  attacked  the  Spanish  town  of  St.  Tho- 
mas. They  burned  it  to  the  ground ;  but  in  the  attack  the 
young  and  -gallant  son  of  Sir  Walter  was  killed.  No  gold- 
mine was  found ;  and  the  broken-hearted  father  returned  to 
England.  Immediately  on  his  landing,  he  was  seized  and 
thrown  into  the  Tower.  On  the  29th  October,  1618,  he  was 
beheaded,  under  a  sentence  passed  against  him  fifteen  years 
before. 

King  James  was  anxious  to  marry  his  son  Charles  to  the 
infanta,  a  princess  of  Spain.  The  nation  was  exceedingly 
averse  to  such  a  marriage,  on  account  of  the  religion  of  the 
Spanish  princess.  The  new  favorite,  however,  Villiers,  who 
had  been  made  Duke  of  Buckingham,  promoted  the  match. 
He,  with  Prince  Charles,  conceived  the  romantic  project  of 
visiting  Spain  in  disguise,  where  the  latter  might  pay  his 
addresses  in  persrn  to  the  Spanish  infanta.  It  was 
some   time    before  James  would    agree  to   this  wild 


248  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

scheme ;  but  he  finally  gave  his  consent,  and  the  Duke  of 
Buckingham,  with  the  prince,  proceeded  to  the  continent. 
They  passed  through  France  in  disguise,  but  visited  the  court, 
where  Charles  saw  the  French  princess,  Henrietta  Maria, 
whom  he  afterwards  married.  In  Spain  he  was  received  with 
great  distinction,  and  negotiations  for  the  marriage  were 
entered  into. 

The  reserved  and  haughty  Spaniards  were  disgusted  with 
the  familiarity  of  Buckingham.  Some  idea  of  this  trait  may 
be  formed  from  the  letters  which  the  favorite  wrote  to  his 
royal  master,  in  which  he  addresses  him  as  "Dear  Dad  and 
Gossip."  Nor  was  James  more  careful  to  preserve  the  dignity 
becoming  a  king;  for  he  calls  Buckingham  '-Dear  Steenie," 
and  his  son  "  Baby  Charles."  The  prince  and  Buckingham 
returned  to  England,  and  shortly  after,  the  negotiations  for 
the  Spanish  match  were  broken  off. 

This  rejoiced  the  English  greatly ;  for  they  not  only  had 
been  averse  to  the  match,  but  angry  with  the  king  for  re- 
fusing to  declare  war  against  the  Spanish  monarch,  in  behalf 
of  his  Protestant  son-in-law,  the  Count  Palatine.  The  latter 
was  fighting  for  the  recovery  of  his  crown  against  the  com- 
bined power  of  Spain  and  Austria.  At  length  James  was 
obli;2;ed  to  send  a  small  force  to  the  continent,  under  a 
famous  German  general.  Count  Mansfeldt.  Nothing 
was  effected  by  this,  however;  and  the  Princess  Elizabeth 
and  her  husband  still  remained  fugitives,  not  only  from  the 
kingdom  of  Bohemia,  but  also  from  their  former  possessions 
on  the  Rhine. 

James  now  opened  negotiations  with  the  court  of  France, 
for  the  marriage  of  Prince  Charles  with  Henrietta  Maria,  the 
sister  of  the  French  king.  These  were  successful;  but  before 
the  arrival  of  the  princess  in  England,  the  king  was  seized 
with  his  last  illness.  He  died  at  his  favorite  palace,  at  Theo- 
balds, on  the  27th  of  March,  1625. 

Questions. — By  what  circumstance  was  Robert  Carr  brought  to 
the  king's  notice? — Describe  the  favor  to  which  he  attained. — Who 


CHARLES    1.  249 

visited  England  in  1612,  and  for  what  purpose? — What  is  said  of  the 
celebration  of  this  marriage  ? — Relate  the  subsequent  history  of  this 
princess  and  her  husband. — Give  an  account  of  the  fall  of  the  favor- 
ite, Rochester. — Against  what  sects  were  severe  laws  passed  during 
this  reign  ? — Describe  the  attempt  to  introduce  Episcopacy  into  Scot- 
land.— Mention  the  result. 

What  was  commanded  by  James  in  the  Book  of  Sports? — What 
effect  did  this  command  have  upon  the  Puritans? — Describe  the 
manner  in  which  Raleigh  passed  the  years  of  his  imprisonment. — 
On  what  terms  did  he  procure  his  release  ? — Relate  his  subsequent 
history. — What  marriage  did  the  king  plan  for  his  son? — How  was 
it  regarded  by  the  nation  ? — Why  ? — Who  promoted  it  ? — Give  some 
account  of  the  journey  to  Spain. — How  did  it  result? — Describe 
James's  conduct  towards  his  son-in-law. — What  marriage  did  the 
king  now  propose  for  his  son  ? — Where  and  when  did  James  die  ? 


CHAPTER  XLII. 

THE   FIRST    SIXTEEN   YEARS    OF   CHARLES    I.'S   REIGN. 

PARLIAMEXT — THE  KING'S  ADVISERS  —  BUCKINGHAM — LAUD — STRAFFORD 
—  THE  king's  third  PARLIAMENT — CROMAVELL — SHIP-MONEY — EPISCO- 
PACY IN  SCOTLAND — THE  KING'S  DIFFICULTIES — LONG  PARLIAMENT — 
TRIAL    OP    STRAFFORD — LAUD — IRELAND. 

On  the  IGtli  July,  1625,  Charles  I.,  with  his  light-hearted 
French  bride,  passed  up  the  Thames  to  the  royal  palace  at 
Whitehall.  No  dark  shadow  of  coining  events  clouded  the 
joy  of  the  royal  party,  and  who  could  dream  that  the  day 
would  come  when  the  monarch  and  his  queen  should  be 
fugitives  from  that  palace  :  the  first  never  to  re-enter  it,  save 
on  his  way  to  the  scaffold,  where,  in  front  of  those  stately 
walls,  his  head  should  be  laid  upon  the  block. 

Charles  I.  began  his  reign  with  even  higher  notions  of  the 
divine  right  of  kings  than  his  flither  had  held.  Meantime, 
parliament,  especially  the  House  of  Commons,  had  grown  both 
in  the  knowledge  of  its  rights,  and  in  a  determination  to 
maintain    them.      By    industry   and    thrift   the    nation    had 


to 
16»9. 


250  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

become  rich,  so  that  the  wealth  of  the  Commons  of  England 
was,  at  this  time,  threefold  that  of  the  Lords,  that  proud 
nobility  who,  in  centuries  past,  claimed  the  sole  right  to 
possess  either  riches  or  power. 

In  the  three  parliaments  which  the  king  called  during  the 
jggg  first  four  or  five  years  of  his  reign,  the  Commons, 
before  granting  supplies,  demanded  a  removal  of  their 
grievances ;  paying  little  heed  when  the  king  told 
them  to  "  remember  that  parliaments  were  altogether  in  his 
power  for  their  calling,  sitting,  or  dissolution,  and  that,  there- 
fore, as  he  should  find  the  fruits  of  them  good  or  evil,  they 
were  to  be  or  not  to  be."  Finding  that  the  Commons 
remained  obstinate,  the  king  in  each  case  dissolved  the 
parliament. 

It  was  the  misfortune  of  Charles  not  only  to  have  been 
educated  in  ideas  of  the  royal  prerogative  totally  unsuited  to 
the  spirit  of  the  people  whom  he  governed,  but  also  to  choose 
for  his  nearest  friends  and  advisers,  men  who  upheld  him  in 
these  opinions  with  a  bigotry  alike  ruinous  to  their  master 
and  to  themselves. 

The  first  of  these  was  the  Duke  of  Buckingham.     The  acta 

of  tyranny  to  which   he  prompted   the   king,  irritated  the 

nation.     From  motives  of  revenge  against  the  French  king 

and  his  minister,  Cardinal  Richelieu,  Buckingham  induced 

his  royal  master  to  give  him  the  command  of  a  body  of  troops 

in  aid  of  the  French  Protestants.     The  latter,  with  a 

feeble  force  in  the  city  of  Rochelle,  were  opposing 

the  whole  might  of  Cardinal  Richelieu  and  Roman  Catholic 

France.     The  first  attempt  for  their  relief  was  unsuccessful, 

and  the  followinor  year  Buckinsrham  went  to  Ports- 

1688.  ^    •'  ^  . 

mouth  to  prepare  a  second  expedition.  There  he  was 
assassinated  by  a  Puritan  fanatic,  who  gloried  in  the  deed, 
believing  that  by  it  he  had  delivered  his  country  and  his 
religion  from  their  greatest  enemy.  In  fact,  the  nation,  in 
complaining  of  their  wrongs,  had  called  Buckingham  "  the 
grievance  of  grievances." 

The  other  advisers  of  Charles  were  Laud,  afterwards  arch- 


CHARLES   I.  251 

bishop  of  Canterbury,  and  Thomas  Wentworth,  made  Earl  of 
Strafford. 

Laud  had  as  high  notions  of  church  government  as  Charles 
had  of  kingly  rule,  and  indeed  they  believed  the  two  to  go 
hand  in  hand.  Laud  introduced  many  new  ceremonies  and 
rites  into  the  church,  and  was  suspected  of  wishing  to  make 
its  liturgy  more  like  the  Romish  ritual.  This  aroused  the 
Puritans,  who,  both  in  books  and  sermons,  opposed  the  tyran- 
nical attempts  of  the  archbishop  to  make  the  entire  nation 
conform  to  the  Established  Church.  The  Puritans  also  wrote 
and  preached  against  performances  on  the  stage,  against  May- 
poles, Christmas  garlands,  dancing,  &c. 

These  writings  and  sermons  were  highly  displeasing,  as  the 
amusements  which  they  condemned  were  those  in  which  the 
court  especially  indulged,  and  many  Puritan  authors  were 
severely  punished  in  consequence.  Alexander  Leighton,  a 
Scotch  preacher,  was  publicly  whipped,  put  in  the  pillory,  had 
one  of  his  ears  cut  oif,  and  his  cheek  branded.  These  were 
common  punishments  inflicted  on  the  "  sowers  of  sedition,"  as 
such  preachers  and  writers  were  called.  This  Leighton  was 
the  father  of  the  pious  Archbishop  Leighton. 

Thomas  Wentworth  had  once  been  a  warm  friend  of  the 
Commons,  but,  by  bribes  of  titles,  and  honors,  had  been  won 
over  to  the  king.  When  his  desertion  became  known,  Mr. 
Pym,  a  member  of  parUamcnt,  said  to  him  :  "  You  have  left 
us,  but  we  will  never  leave  you,  while  your  head  is  upon 
your  shoulders." 

In  the  third  parliament  which  Charles  held,  the 
to  Commons  drew  up  the  famous  "  Petition  of  Right." 
This  "Petition"  was  designed  to  obtain  from  the 
king  the  observance  of  certain  rights,  secured  indeed  by 
Magna  Charta,  but  which  Charles  had  frequently  and  openly 
disregarded.  The  king  evaded,  as  long  as  possible,  his  assent 
to  this  appeal,  but  at  length,  pressed  by  want  of  money, 
solemnly  granted  the  "  Petition  of  Right."  One  quarrel 
between  the  king  and  his  parliament  was  about  "  Tonnage 
and    Poundage,"   a   tax   somewhat   similar  to   custom-house 


252  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

duties  of  the  present  day.  This  duty  could  only  be  granted 
to  the  king  by  parliament,  but  Charles  had  levied  it  by  his 
own  authority,  even  after  granting  the  ••'  Petition  of  Right," 
which  was  expressly  intended  to  prevent  his  doing  so. 

In  this  third  parliament  a  committee  was  appointed  to 
consider  the  state  of  religion.  One  of  the  men  who  composed 
it  was  Oliver  Cromwell,  member  for  Huntingdon.  This  re- 
markable man,  then  thirty  years  old,  ^'  always  a  year  older 
than  the  century"  (as  Carlyle  significantly  remarks),  stood  up 
in  this  committee  on  the  11th  of  February,  1629,  and  made 
his  first  speech  in  parliament.  He  said  that  he  had  heard 
that  "flat  Popery"  had  been  preached  by  a  clergyman  at 
Paul's  Cross,  and  that  the  bishop  had  commanded  that 
nothing  to  the  contrary  should  be  preached :  that,  moreover, 
the  bishops  and  clergy  who  were  most  inclined  to  Rome, 
received  the  richest  livings.  He  concluded  by  asking  :  "  If 
these  are  steps  to  church  preferment,  what  may  we  not 
expect ?'>  //    /  y(  '^. 

Oliver  Cromwell  was  the  son  of  a  yeoman  in  Huntingdon. 
He  was  born  on  the  25th  April,  1599.  Of  his  early  life  very 
little  is  known.  His  mother,  Elizabeth  Steward,  of  Ely,  is 
said  to  have  traced  her  ancestry  to  the  royal  Stewarts  of  Scot- 
land. It  would  be  a  striking  and  singular  fact,  if  even  a 
remote  cousinship  existed  between  Charles  Stuart  and  Oliver 
Cromwell. 

In  the  year  1616,   Cromwell,   then   a   lad  of  seventeen, 

entered  Sidney-Sussex  College,  at  Cambridge.     Four  years 

after,  we  find  him  married  to  Elizabeth,  daughter 

liandiiig    of  Sir  James  Bouchier,  a  knight,  of  London,  and 

of  the       taking  his  father's  place  at  the  old  home  in  Hunt- 
Pilgrims.    .      ,  _        ,      ^  ,  -.    , 
mgdon.     For  the  next  nine  years  we  know  little 

of  him,  save  that  he  was  leading  the  life  of  a  country  gentle- 
man, his  mind  alive  to  the  events  passing  in  the  kingdom, 
and  daily  growing  more  earnest  in  his  convictions  as  a 
Christian  and  as  a  Puritan.  In  1629,  we  notice  his  first 
appearance  in  public  life.     Soon  after,  he  became  a  farmer  at 


CHARLES   I.  263 

St.  Ives  (five  miles  from  Huntingdon),  "by  the  shores  of  the 
sable  Ouse,  on  the  edge  of  the  fen  country"  of  Lincoln. 

King  Charles's  third  parliament  was  dissolved  in  1629,  and 
none  sat  again  in  England  for  eleven  years. 

Among  the  king's  unlawful  measures  for  raising  funds,  was 
the  levying  of  a  tax  called  "ship-money.^'  The  discovery 
had  been  made,  by  one  who  aided  the  king  in  these  arbitrary 
exactions,  that,  in  former  times,  the  seaport  towns,  occasionally 
the  maritime  counties,  and,  in  a  few  rare  instances,  the  inland 
places,  had  been  made  to  furnish  ships  for  the  crown.  Charles 
determined  to  revive  this  ancient  demand,  in  virtue  of  the 
royal  prerogative,  to  extend  the  requisition  throughout  the 
kingdom,  and  to  exact  money  instead  of  ships,  at  the  rate  of 
1635  ^^^^^  f'^i'  every  ship.  In  January,  1635,  in  the 
to       parish  of  Great  Kimble,  at  the  foot  of  the  Chiltern 

■|  go  o 

Hills,  in  Buckinghamshire,  the  assessors  of  ship- 
money  appeared  and  summoned  the  people  to  pay  the  tax. 
John  Hampden,  a  country  gentleman  of  pure  Saxon  descent, 
and  a  cousin  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  attended  the  meeting  held 
in  the  parish  church.  He  declared  that  the  king  had  no 
right  to  levy  the  ship-money,  and  therefore,  though  the  assess- 
ment in  his  case  was  only  twenty  shillings,  he  refused  to  pay 
it.  Hampdeij  w^-s  tried  for  this  refusal,  and  after  a  long  suit, 
sentence  was  pronounced  against  him  in  1638 ;  but  his  firm- 
ness encouraged  others,  and  resistance  to  the  tax  of  ship- 
money  spread  through  the  country. 

At  this  juncture,  Charles,  by  the  advice  of  Arch- 
bishop Laud,  attempted  to  introduce  Episcopacy  into 
Scotland.  The  Scots  were  filled  with  indignation.  A  woman 
named  Jenny  Geddes,  hurled  a  stool  at  the  head  of  one  of  the 
bishops.  It  seemed  the  signal  for  violence  throughout  the 
land.  The  people  assaulted  the  prelates,  threw  sticks  and 
stones  at  the  clergymen  who  attempted  to  read  the  liturgy, 
and  almost  threatened  to  tear  down  the  churches  about  their 
heads,  amid  cries  of  "Apape!"  "Apape!"  "Antichrist!" 
"  Antichrist !" 
22 


254  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

Finally  the  Scots,  animated  by  religious  enthu- 
siasm, raised  an  army,  and  under  banners  bearing  the 
inscription,  "  For  Christ's  crown  and  covenant,"  marched  to 
encounter  the  king's  forces  which  had  been  raised  to  quell 
them.  They  met  near  the  river  Tweed,  but  no  engagement 
took  place.  Charles  found  the  enemy  stronger  than  he  had 
anticipated,  and  perceived,  moreover,  that  there  was  no  dispo- 
sition on  the  part  of  his  own  troops  to  make  the  attack. 
Charles  was  forced  to  withdraw  his  army  and  enter  into  treaty 
with  the  Scots. 

Wentworth,  soon  after  he  had  taken  sides  with  the  king, 
had  been  sent  to  govern  Ireland.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
ability,  and  succeeded  in  restoring  something  like  order  to 
that  distracted  country.  He  even  managed  to  obtain  from 
the  Irish  parliament  supplies  of  money  for  the  king.  When 
Charles  was  in  the  midst  of  his  troubles  with  the  Scots,  he 
sent  for  WentAvorth,  made  him  Earl  Strafford,  and  asked  his 
advice.  Strafford,  thinking  that  he  could  manage 
the  English  parliament  as  well  as  he  had  done  an 
Irish  one.  advised  his  master  to  summon  it.  This  parliament 
met  in  April,  1640.  The  spirit  of  the  Commons  was  as  high 
as  ever,  and  as  they  began  upon  the  old  subject  of  grievances, 
before  granting  any  money,  the  king  dissolved  it,  at  the  end 
of  a  short  session  of  three  weeks. 

Charles  was  now  in  greater  trouble  than  before.  The  Scots, 
with  a  good  stout  army  in  "uniform  of  hodden  gray,  with  blue 
caps,"  had  crossed  the  border,  successfully  encountered  the 
royal  forces,  and  entered  England  to  "  present  their  griev- 
ances to  the  king's  majesty."  The  sympathy  of  the  great 
body  of  the  English  people  was  with  them,  nor  had  Charles 
and  his  advisers  either  the  money  or  the  troops  sufficient  for 
their  reduction.  Under  these  circumstances  he  was  compelled 
to  enter  into  negotiations  with  the  Scots,  and  moreover  to 
yield  to  the  clamors  of  the  nation,  and  summon  his  fifth  and 
last, — the  celebrated  Long  Parliament.  It  met  on  the  3d 
November,  1640. 

One  of  its  earliest  acts  was  to  impeach  for  high  treason, 


CHARLES    I.  255 

Thomas  Wentworth,  Earl  of  Strafford,  and  Laud,  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  both  of  whom  were  sent  to  the  Tower.  There 
was  no  sufficient  evidence  on  which  Straiford  could  be  con- 
victed of  high  treason,  but  the  people,  excited  against  him,  as 
they  had  formerly  been  against  the  Duke  of  Buckingham, 
because  they  believed  him  to  be  the  adviser  of  Charles's 
tyrannical  measures,  clamored  for  his  death.  After  a  long 
trial,  which  absorbed  the  attention  and  interest  of  the  nation, 
the  court  pronounced  Strafford  guilty,  and  sentenced  him  to 
the  block.  Charles,  after  much  wavering,  yielded  to  the 
pleas  of  his  courtiers,  and  gave  his  assent  to  the  fatal  bill. 
One  honest  man  alone  was  found — the  good  Juxon,  bishop  of 
London — who  urged  the  king  not  to  go  against  his  conscience. 
In  a  letter  addressed  to  Charles,  Strafford  had  written  :  '^  I  do 
most  humbly  beseech  your  majesty,  for  prevention  of  evils 
which  may  happen  by  refusal,  to  pass  this  bill."  He  added : 
"  My  consent  shall  more  acquit  you  herein  to  God,  than  all 
the  world  can  do  besides."  When,  however,  Charles  took 
him  at  his  word,  and  the  consent  of  the  king  to  his  death  was 
made  known  to  the  fallen  courtier,  he  exclaimed :  "  Put  not 
your  trust  in  princes,  nor  in  any  child  of  man,  for  there  is  no 
help  in  them." 

On  the  day  in  which  Strafford's  bill  of  attainder 
^164:1^'  ^6C®i"^G<i  ^^®  royal  assent,  another  important  bill,  that 
annulling  the  king's  prerogative  for  dissolving  parlia- 
ment, passed  the  great  seal.  Previously,  Charles  had  been 
forced  to  consent  to  a  bill  for  triennial  parliaments,  and  on 
the  5th  of  July  of  this  year,  he  consented  to  the  removal  of 
the  detestable  courts  of  High  Commission  and  Star  Chamber. 

Three  years  later,  Archbishop  Laud  was  brought  to  a  trial 
similar  to  that  of  Strafford,  before  bitter  enemies.  Con- 
demned to  death,  he  laid  his  head  upon  the  block,  with  an 
unshrinking  courage,  praying  for  forgiveness  of  his  enemies, 
and  uttering  among  his  last  words,  "  I  desire  to  depart  and  be 
with  Christ." 

After  the  death  of  Strafford,  a  rebellion  broke  out  in  Ire- 
land.    It  was  headed  by  Roger  More,  a  Roman  Catholic,  and 


256  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

directed  against  the  English  of  the  Pale,  as  the  Protestant 
colonists  of  Ireland  were  called.  The  news  produced  a  great 
excitement  in  England,  and  men  and  money  were  raised  to 
put  down  the  rebellion.  The  king  was  so  lukewarm  in  sup- 
pressing this  outbreak^  that  suspicions  were  aroused  of  his 
being  in  league  with  the  Roman  Catholics.  He  was  accused, 
moreover,  of  soliciting  the  aid  of  foreign  princes  to  quell  the 
growing  power  and  spirit  of  his  parliament. 


Qup:stions. — When  and  under  what  circumstances  did  Charles 
ascend  the  throne? — How  did  Charles  regard  the  royal  prerogative? 
— Describe  the  progress  and  prosperity  of  the  Commons  at  this  time. 
— What  demands  were  made  by  the  king's  first  parliaments? — How 
did  Charles  act  on  each  of  these  occasions? — What  was  the  character 
of  the  king's  advisers  ? — From  what  motives  did  Villiers  promote  an 
expedition  against  the  French  government  ? — Describe  the  object  of 
this  expedition  and  the  result. — What  befell  Villiers  the  following 
year? 

Name  two  other  advisers  of  the  king. — Describe  the  character  and 
conduct  of  Archbishop  Laud. — How  did  the  Puritans  oppose  the 
archbishop? — Relate  the  persecutions  which  they  suffered  in  conse- 
quence.— Describe  the  conduct  of  Wentworth. — What  was  the  Peti- 
tion of  Right  ? — How  received  by  the  king  ? — What  was  tonnage  and 
poundage  ?— Relate  Charles's  conduct  with  regard  to  this  tax. — On 
what  occasion  did  Cromwell  first  speak  regarding  public  affairs  ? — 
Describe  his  appearance  and  remarks. — Relate  his  history  up  to  this 
period. 

Mention  the  precedent  which  encouraged  the  king  to  levy  the  tax 
called  ship-money. — Describe  the  conduct  of  Hampden  in  this  con- 
nection.— Mention  its  result. — Describe  Charles's  attempt  to  intro- 
duce Episcopacy  into  Scotland. — State  the  result. — Relate  the  suc- 
cess of  Wentworth's  government  in  Ireland. — To  what  did  he  advise 
the  king  at  this  juncture? — With  what  success? — Describe  the  con- 
duct of  the  Scots  at  this  time. — What  circumstances  compelled  the 
king  to  treat  with  them? — Describe  the  parliament  which  met  on  the 
3d  November,  1640. — Mention  one  of  its  first  acts. — Give  an  account 
of  the  trial,  imprisonment,  and  death  of  Strafford. — What  important 
bills  passed  in  parliament  on  the  day  of  Strafford's  attainder  ?— 
Describe  the  end  of  Archbishop  Laud. — What  occurred  in  Ireland 
during  the  year  1641  ? — What  accusations  were  brought  against  the 
king? 


CHARLES   I.  257 


CHAPTER  XLIII. 


SEIZURE- OF  THE  FIVE  MEMBERS — THE  KING  S  FORCES — THE  PARLIAMENT  S 
ARMY — CIVIL  WAR — RELIGIOUS  PARTIES — THE  KING  AND  THE  SCOTS — 
CONDUCT    OF    CROMAVELL — THE    KING'S    DOWNFALL. 

Distrust  of  King  Charles  grew  stronger  day  by  day.     But 
nothing  so  roused  the  fears  of  the  nation  as  his  attempt  to 

seize  in  their  places  in  the .  house,  five  members  of 
'i^"*a*'  *^^  Commons  on  the  charge  of  high  treason.     These 

gentlemen  withdrew,  before  the  king  entered  West- 
minster Hall,  and  were  safely  lodged  in  the  city  beyond  his 
majesty's  reach.  This  breach  of  parliamentary  privilege 
injured  Charles  more  than  anything  else  in  the  eyes  of  his 
subjects.  His  coming  to  the  house  with  an  armed  band, 
induced  them  to  think  of  getting  the  military  force  of  the 
kingdom,  for  the  future,  under  their  own  control. 

With  this  view,  parliament  passed  a  bill  for. the  naming  of 
such  lords-lieutenant  of  counties,  as  would  raise  a  militia 
mindful  of  their  interests.  The  king  refused  his  assent  to  a 
bill  which  would  place  this  power  in  the  hands  of  the  parlia- 
ment. That  body  then  resolved  to  muster  an  army  and  put 
the  kingdom  in  a  state  of  defence,  without  the  king's  consent. 
Of  course,  when  affairs  were  in  such  a  state,  civil  war  could 
not  be  far  distant.  The  king,  who  had  gone  into  the  north, 
issued  his  "  Commission  of  Array,''  for  levying  troops.  His 
cause  was  strongest  in  the  north,  the  west,  and  the  south  of 
England.  His  army  was  raised  chiefly  among  the  nobility, 
who  were  most  loyal  in  their  devotion  to  the  king.  The 
Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  some  of  the 
country  gentlemen  in  the  north,  also  favored  the  royal  cause. 
The  queen,  who  had  gone  to  Holland,  pawned  the  crown 
jewels,  and  sent  her  husband  money.  Many  of  the  king's 
officers  were  well  skilled  in  the  art  of  war,  but  the  bad  morals 
22*  R 


258  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

of  his  troops,  especially  those  commanded  by  his  nephew, 
Prince  Rupert,  who  had  come  over  from  Germany,  excited 
the  indignation  of  the  people.  Prince  Rupert  (or  Prince 
Robber,  as  he  was  nicknamed)  scoured  the  counties  of  Eng- 
land, burning  and  pillaging.  The  word  plunder^  which 
originated  in  Germany  during  the  miseries  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  was  now  heard  for  the  first  time  in  England. 
Well  would  it  have  been  had  the  deeds  of  robbery  and  wrong 
which  the  word  describes,  been  for  ever  and  in  all  lands 
unknown. 

The   parliament   published   their  ''  Ordinance  of 

16^^'.  ^^i^iti^/'  ^^^  enlistments,  especially  from  among  the 
lower  classes,  soon  swelled  their  ranks.  Although 
there  were  few  well-trained  soldiers  amongst  them,  they  were 
enthusiasts  for  the  cause  in  which  they  fought.  Such  zeal 
was  shown  in  contributions,  from  the  bag  of  gold,  or  silver 
plate,  of  the  wealthy  Londoner,  down  to  the  poor  country- 
woman's silver  thimble,  that  their  army  was  called,  in  derision, 
"  the  thimble  and  bodkin  army."  John  Hampden  and  Oliver 
Cromwell  had  commissions  as  colonels  in  the  parliament's 
army.  Colonel  Hampden  gathered  his  men  under  a  banner, 
bearing  on  one  side  the  inscription,  "  God  with  us,"  and  on 
the  other  the  Hampden  motto,  "Vestigia  nulla  retrorsum" 
(never  retracing  our  steps).  Cromwell  set  about  raising 
troops  who  should  be  "  men  of  religion,"  and  soon  he  had 
raised  his  famous  body  of  "Ironsides,"  among  whom  no 
drinking  nor  disorder  nor  impiety  was  allowed;  nor  swearing, 
because  for  every  oath  a  fine  of  twelve  pence  was  paid.  There 
were  nearly  as  many  preachers  as  soldiers  in  the  parliament  s 
army,  and  much  time  was  spent  in  listeniog  to  sermons  and 
attending  prayer  meetings.  The  Puritans  looked  upon  their 
enemies  as  Amalekites,  Philistines,  and  idolaters,  whom  they, 
as  God's  chosen  people,  were  commissioned  to  punish  and 
overthrow.  Roundheads  was  a  nickname  given,  in  derision, 
to  this  army,  because  of  the  fashion  generally  prevalent  among 
the   Puritans,  of  cropping   the  hair  close.      Cavaliers   and 

Malignants  were  terms  applied  to  the  royalist  army. 
///  /   ■•' 


CHARLES   I.  259 

164:^         It  would  be  useless  to  give  all  the  details  of  the 
to       history  of  the  next  four  years,  during  which,  after  the 
lapse  of  nearly  two  centuries,  Englishmen  again  met 
in  deadly  strife.     It  will  suffice,  after  naming  the  first  en- 
counter, to  mention  those  battles  most  important  in  their 
results.     The  contest  began  at  Edge  Hill,  in  Warwickshire, 
by  an  indecisive  action,  in  which  both  parties  claimed 

164:3. '  ^^^  victory ;  but  of  the  four  thousand  who,  at  even- 
ing, lay  dead  in  the  Vale  of  the  Red  Horse,  at  the 
foot  of  Edgehill,  the  greater  number  were  royalists.  In  a 
skirmish  fought  in  the  following  year,  at  Chalgrove  Field, 
near  Oxford,  the  virtuous  and  admirable  Hampden,  ever 
memorable  for  his  resistance  to  the  ship-money,  lost  his  life. 
His  was  a  death  lamented  alike  by  both  parties.  In  the  west 
of  England  the  king's  cause  strengthened,  and  Bristol  was 
given  up  to  the  royalists. 

Parliament  now  asked  aid  of  the  Scots.  The  only  condition 
on  which  the  latter  would  grant  it,  was,  that  the  English  par- 
liament and  army  should  sign  their  "  National  Covenant,"  by 
which  the  Scots  hoped  to  establish  Presbyterianism  in  Eng- 
land. There  was  at  this  time  a  party  rising  into  importance, 
called  the  Independents,  among  whom  Oliver  Cromwell  was  a 
conspicuous  leader.  They  carried  their  opposition  to  the  king 
and  his  misgovernment  much  farther  than  the  Presbyterians, 
but  held  more  enlarged  views  of  religious  liberty.  Indeed, 
"  religious  toleration,"  a  doctrine  very  little  understood  or 
relished  in  those  days,  was  said  by  their  enemies  to  be  *'  the 
Great  Diana"  of  the  Independents. 

The  National  Covenant  of  the  Scots  was  a  bond  into  which 
they  had  entered  for  upholding  the  Presbyterian  kirk  of  Scot- 
land, at  the  time  when  Charles  had  first  attempted  to  establish 
Episcopacy  in  that  kingdom.  The  Independents  were  averse 
to  the  Covenant,  and  one  of  their  number.  Sir  Harry  Vane, 
who  was  negotiating  the  treaty  at  Edinburgh,  induced  the 
Scots  to  add  the  title  of  League  to  their  national  bond,  thus 
giving  it  something  of  a  civil  as  well  as  religious  character. 
Under  its  new  name,  that  of  the  '^  Solemn  League  and  Cov*v 


260  '  HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND. 

nant/'  it  was  subscribed  in  both  kingdoms.  Afterwards, 
however,  to  the  great  displeasure  of  the  Scots,  many  were 
allowed  to  serve  in  the  army  who  had  not  taken  the  Covenant. 
A  l^rge  Scottish  army  under  Leslie,  Earl  of  Leven,  entered 
England  early  in  the  following  year,  and  being  joined  by  the 
parliament's  forces  under  Lord  Fairfax  and  the  Earl  of  Man^ 
Chester,  besieged  the  royalists  in  the  town  of  York.  Oliver 
Cromwell  served  under  Manchester  as  his  lieutenant-general. 
Prince  Rupert,  hastening  from  the  west,  relieved  the  besieged 
city,  and  then,  against  the  advice  of  the  Duke  of  Newcastle, 
an  older  and  better  commander,  insisted  on  aivino: 

T      1    .  o  O 

1644.  ^^^^1®  *o  *^^  parliament  forces  on  Marston  Moor. 
The  result  was,  the  bloodiest  engagement  of  the 
whole  war,  entire  victory  to  the  Roundheads,  chiefly  owing  to 
the  desperate  valor  and  able  conduct  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  and 
utter  ruin  to  the  royalist  cause  in  the  north.  York  surren- 
dered, and  in  its  glorious  old  minster  the  parliament  army 
and  their  Scotch  allies  returned  thanks  for  this  great  victory. 
The  divisions  between  the  Independents  and  the  Presby- 
terians were  becoming  daily  more  marked.  The  Independents 
accused  the  Presbyterians  of  mismanaging  the  war,  and,  more- 
over, of  a  desire  to  continue  it,  that  they  might  keep  the 
powers  of  government  in  their  own  hands.  The  Presbyte- 
rians were  equally  oifended  at  the  Independents,  on  account 
of  their  defence  of  religious  liberty.  The  carrying  in  parlia- 
ment of  the  celebrated  "  Self-Denying  Ordinance"  settled  the 
contest  in  favor  of  the  Independents.  By  this  ordi- 
nance the  army  was  to  be  reorganized,  and  all  com- 
manders who  held  seats  in  parliament,  whether  in* the  House 
of  Lords  or  House  of  Commons,  were  to  resign  their  com- 
missions. The  new  commander-in-chief  was  Sir  Thomas 
Fairfax.  In  favor  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  who  was  too  able  a 
soldier  to  lose,  the  "  Self-Denying  Ordinance"  was  dispensed 
with.  He  was  kept  in  the  army,  and  soon  won,  at  Naseby, 
the  most  brilliant  of  his  victories  over  the  king.  This  battle, 
fought  in  Northamptonshire,  in  the  centre  'of  England,  in 
June,  1645,  was  the  last  in  which  King  Charles  took  TM)r^  -  ' 


CHARLES   I.  261 

command.     The  next  ten  months  witnessed  sad  reverses  to 

the  royal  cause.  Bristol,  Chester,  Winchester,  Basing-House, 
and  many  other  important  towns  and  royal  strongholds  in  the 
south  and  west  of  England,  were  taken  by  the  parliament- 
arians. 

Charles  now  looked  with  hope  towards  Scotland,  where  his 
gallant  partisan,  the  Marquis  of  Montrose,  at  the  head  of  a 
force  of  Irish  and  Highlanders,  was  winning  important  victo- 
ries for  the  king.  But  Montrose's  brilliant  career  was  ended 
in  the  autumn  of  this  year,  1645,  by  a  battle  near  Selkirk,  in 
which  the  Scotch  General  Leslie  scattered  his  forces,  and 
drove  him  a  hopeless  fugitive  back  to  the  Highlands.  The 
king  retired  dispirited  to  his  loyal  city  of  Oxford,  but  even 
there  he  felt  far  from  secure.  He  remained  in  a  wavering 
state  of  mind  for  some  months,  seeing  nothing  but  trouble 
and  difficulty  before  him  wherever  he  turned.  At 
igIo.'  ^^"g^^>  dreading  the  approach  of  Cromwell's  troopers, 
and  the  horrors  of  a  siege,  he  escaped  in  the  disguise 
of  a  groom,  and  fled  to  Newark,  to  throw  himself  into  the 
hands  of  the  Scotch  Presbyterian  army.  Charles  hoped  that 
if  he  promised  to  tolerate  their  religion,  they  would,  out 
of  jealousy  of  the  Independents,  re-establish  him  upon  his 
throne. 

The  Scots  urged  the  king  to  sign  the  Covenant,  and  agree 
to  certain  propositions,  which  had  been  presented  by  parlia- 
ment, for  the  safety  of  the  kingdom,  as  the  only  condition  on 
which  they  would  support  him.  They  urged  in  vain,  and, 
after  much  consultation  and  negotiation,  agieed  to  deliver 
Charles  into  the  hands  of  the  parliament.  Commissioners 
were  sent  to  receive  the  royal  captive,  who  was  carried  by 
them  to  Holmby  House,  a  stately  mansion  in  North- 
amptonshire, which  his  father.  King  James,  had 
purchased  for  him,  when  a  boy,  as  a  royal  residence.  It  was 
not  far  from  Naseby  Field.  Here,  in  the  month  of  June, 
Charles  was  surprised  by  Cornet  Joyce,  and  five  hundred 
soldiers,  who  had  come  to  take  him  out  of  the  hands  of  the 
parliament,  and  carry  him  to  the  army.     The  king  demanded 


262  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

by  what  commission  they  had  come.  The  cornet  replied 
by  pointing  to  his  array  of  armed  men.  The  king  smiled, 
acknowledging  it  was  a  "  fair  commission/'  and  certainly  one 
not  to  be  resisted.  He  accompanied  Cornet  Joyce,  rather 
pleased  on  the  whole  to  get  out  of  the  hands  of  the  Presby- 
terians. He  was  honorably  treated  by  the  army ;  allowed  to 
have  his  own  chaplains,  and  to  see  his  children,  whom  he 
tenderly  loved. 

At  various  times  during  the  course  of  the  war,  efforts  had 
been  made  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation  with  the  king;  but 
the  insincerity  of  Charles  towards  all  parties  was  such  that 
the  thing  was  impossible.  He  was  buoyed  up  either  with  the 
hope  of  foreign  assistance,  or,  if  that  failed,  of  being  able  to 
take  advantage  of  the  divisions  between  the  Presbyterians  and 
the  Independents,  and,  by  means  of  one  or  the  other  of  these 
parties,  to  get  back  to  an  absolute  throne. 

A  council  of  officers,  in  which  Cromwell  and  his  son-in-law, 
Ireton,  took  a  leading  part,  had  drawn  up  "  Proposals'' 
providing  for  a  just  and  wise  system  of  government, 
and  for  religious  toleration.  These  "  Proposals,"  the  best 
which  were  ever  made  to  the  captive  king,  Charles  rejected. 
The  deserted  monarch  indulged  the  vain  hope  that  he  should 
yet  triumph  over  his  enemies.  In  a  letter  to  the  queen, 
written  at  this  time,  he  says  he  is  courted  by  both  the  army 
and  the  Scots,  but  thought  he  should  close  with  the  latter, 
sooner  than  the  other ;  that  she  might  be  entirely  easy  as  to 
any  concessions  he  might  make  to  his  enemies ;  for  that  he 
should  know  in  due  time  how  to  deal  with  the  rogues,  who, 
instead  of  a  silken  garter  (the  queen  had  charged  him  with 
promising  to  make  Cromwell  a  knight  of  the  Order  of  the 
Garter),  should  be  fitted  with  a  hempen  cord.  A  spy  told 
Cromwell  of  this  communication  to  the  queen,  and  that  a 
messenger  bearing  the  letter  sewed  up  in  the  skirt  of  a  saddle, 
was  to  leave  that  night  from  an  inn  in  Holborn,  for  Dover. 
Disguised  as  troopers,  Cromwell  and  Ireton  went  to  the  inn, 
and  awaited,  over  their  cans  of  beer,  the  arrival  of  the  mes- 
senger.     When   he   came   in,   they  seized   the   saddle,  and, 


CHARLES    I.  263 

ripping  up  the  skirts  of  it,  found  the  letter  with  the  above 
contents.  From  that  moment  it  is  probable  that  Cromwell 
resolved  to  put  no  further  trust  in  the  king. 

Shortly  after  this  affair,  Charles,  being  more  closely  watched, 
imagined  that  his  life  was  in  danger,  and,  with  a  few  attend- 
ants, escaping  from  Hampton  Court,  where  he  had  been  lodged 
by  the  army,  threw  himself  into  the  hands  of  the  governor  of 
the  Isle  of  Wight.  The  king  was  actuated  by  several  motives 
in  choosing  this  place  of  refuge.  The  governor,  Colonel 
Hammond,  had  said  that  he  should  go  "  down  to  his  govern- 
ment, because  he  found  the  army  was  resolved  to  break  all 
promises  with  the  king,  and  that  he  would  have  nothing  to 
do  with  such  perfidious  actions.''  This  declaration  may  have 
led  Charles  to  hope  that  his  designs  might  be  secretly  favored, 
if  not  promoted,  by  this  ofl&cer. 

In  the  Isle  of  Wight,  moreover,  he  could  better  derive 
advantage  from  the  fleet,  should  the  sailors  at  any  time  return 
to  their  allegiance.  Above  all,  he  was  on  the  coast,  and,  should 
everything  turn  against  him,  could  more  readily,  as  his  advisers 
urged,  "  take  boat,  and  dispose  of  his  person  into  what  part 
beyond  the  seas  he  pleased.'' 

At  first  the  king  was  allowed  comparative  liberty.  He  rode 
abroad,  and  received  the  impression  that  he  might  leave  the 
island  at  his  own  free  will  and  pleasure.  When,  however,  the 
king's  place  of  refuge  became  known,  parliament  sent  orders 
to  the  Governor  to  keep  a  strict  guard  upon  his  person. 

These  orders  were  obeyed,  and  Charles,  finding  himself 
more  closely  a  prisoner  than  he  had  ever  been  before,  tried  to 
force  the  bars  of  his  grated  window  at  Carisbrook  Castle,  and 
escape  to  France.  He  did  not  succeed.  The  miserable  life 
which  the  king  had  led  told  upon  his  appearance.  The  once 
handsome  monarch  had  become  a  prematurely  gray  and  worn- 
out  old  man.  At  Carisbrook  he  passed  his  time  in  reading, 
and  in  conversing  with  the  gentlemen  who  attended  him,  both 
of  whom  were  highly-cultivated  men. 

Meanwhile  the  hostility  between  the  parliament  and  the 
army,  which  was,  in  truth,  a  struggle  between  Presbyterianism 


264  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

and  Independency,  grew  daily  more  bitter.  The  parliament 
were  still  willing  to  consider  terms  of  reconciliation  with  the 
king,  w'hilst  Cromwell  and  the  army  had  resolved  that  no 
more  treaties  should  be  oftered  him.  The  latter,  to  secure 
possession  of  his  person,  ordered  Lieutenant-Colonel  Cobbet 
to  convey  Charles  from  Carisbrook,  to  the  solitary, 
gloomy  castle  of  Hurst,  on  the  Hampshire  coast. 
Having  possession  of  the  king,  a  band  of  armed  soldiers, 
under  Colonel  Pride,  entered  London,  surrounded  the  parlia- 
ment house,  and  seized  the  principal  members.  Many  fled, 
and  all  that  remained  were  fifty  Independents.  This  seizure 
is  generally  called  Pride's  Purge,  and  the  members  who  were 
left  are  known  as  the  Rump  Parliament. 

In  the  dreary  walls  of  his  prison-house,  Charles  was  filled 
with  fears  for  his  life.  The  idea  of  his  subjects  bringing 
their  king  to  trial,  and  passing  a  judicial  sentence  upon  him, 
could  never  have  entered  into  the  imagination  of  this  firm 
believer  in  the  divine  right  of  kings.  When,  therefore,  on 
the  night  of  the  16th  December,  1648,  he  heard  the  creaking 
of  the  drawbridge,  and  the  tramp  of  armed  men,  he  feared  the 
hour  of  his  assassination  was  come.  Great  was  his  relief  on 
finding  that  their  commission  was  to  convey  him  to  Windsor 
Castle.  On  the  route,  Charles  received  touching  evidences 
of  the  reviving  love  and  loyalty  of  the  people  towards  their 
discrowned  and  fallen  monarch.  On  the  day  that  his  majesty 
entered  Windsor,  the  few  Independents  who  now  were  left  as 
the  House  of  Commons,  appointed  a  committee  to 


Dec. 83, 
104g. 


draw  up  charges  against  the  king.  On  the  6th 
January,  1649,  a  high  court  of  justice  was  appointed 
for  the  trial.  On  the  20th,  Charles  Stuart  was  summoned 
before  it,  and  accused  of  treason.  For  seven  days,  in  the 
presence  of  that  court,  composed  of  those  subjects  whose 
power  he  had  despised,  was  King  Charles  obliged  to  appear, 
and  listen  to  the  fearful  charges  of  criminal  misrule  which 
were  brought  against  him.  On  the  last  day  of  the  trial, 
Charles  Stuart,  as  "a  tyrant,  traitor,  murderer,  and  public 
enemy,"  was  sentenced  to  be  executed. 


CHARLES   I.  265 

On  the  30th  January,  1649,  on  a  scaffold  erected  in  front 
of  the  royal  palace  of  Whitehall,  the  king's  head  was  laid 
upon  the  block.  He  met  death  with  calmness,  even  cheerful- 
ness. "  I  go  from  a  corruptible  to  an  incorruptible  crown," 
were  his  last  words,  addressed  to  Bishop  Juxon.  When  the 
executioner  had  performed  his  office,  and  the  severed  head 
was  held  up  in  the  sight  of  the  people,  "one  dismal,  universal 
groan"  broke  from  the  awe-stricken  witnesses  of  this  fearful 
deed. 

Questions. — Describe  Charles's  attempt  to  seize  the  five  members 
of  the  Commons. — What  effect  did  it  produce  upon  the  nation? — 
Mention  the  bill  introduced  at  this  time  in  parliament. — What  was 
the  consequence  of  the  king's  refusal  of  this  bill  ? — Describe  the 
king's  army. — By  what  means  did  the  parliament  raise  troops  ? — 
Describe  the  zeal  which  pervaded  them. — Mention  two  distinguished 
commanders. — Describe  the  character  and  discipline  of  the  parlia- 
ment's army. — Where  was  the  first  battle  fought? — With  whafre- 
sult  ? — For  what  was  the  skirmish  at  Chalgrove  Field  memorable  ? 

On  what  condition  did  the  Scots  promise  to  aid  the  parliament- 
arians?— Describe  the  views  of  the  Independents. — What  was  the 
Scotch  National  Covenant  ? — Relate  the  manner  in  which  it  acquired 
the  additional  title  of  League. — How  was  it  then  received  in  Eng- 
land ? — Describe  the  battle  of  Marston  Moor,  and  the  result  of  it. — 
Mention  the  grounds  of  dispute  between  the  Independents  and  th« 
Presbyterians. — By  what  parliamentary  act  did  the  former  triumph  ? 
— Relate  the  provisions  of  that  act. — Who  was  exempted  from  it? — 
Give  an  account  of  the  battle  won  by  him  shortly  after. 

Describe  Charles's  reverses. — What  circumstances  defeated  his 
hope  of  aid  from  Scotland  ? — Mention  his  subsequent  conduct. — 
What  motive  induced  him  to  act  thus  ? — Relate  the  conduct  of  the 
Scots  with  regard  to  the  king. — By  what  means  did  he  fall  into  the 
hands  of  the  Independents  ? — How  was  he  treated  by  them  ? — What 
defeated  every  attempt  to  enter  into  treaty  with  the  king? — By  what 
false  hopes  was  he  actuated  ? — Relate  the  discovery  of  Charles's 
treachery  made  by  Cromwell  and  Ireton. — Relate  the  king's  subse- 
quent conduct. — Describe  his  attempt  at  escape. — What  induced  the 
king's  removal  to  Hurst  Castle  ? — Describe  the  proceedings  of  the 
army  with  regard  to  the  parliament. — Describe  the  trial  of  the  king. 
— Relate  the  circumstances  and  manner  of  his  death, 
23 


266  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 


CHAPTER  XLIV. 

ENGLAND   A  COMMONWEALTH. 

CHANGES — IRELAND — PRINCE    CHARLES — THE    DUTCH    WAR. 

On  the  9th  of  January,  before  the  trial  of  King  Charles, 
the  2Teat  seal  had  been  broken  and  a  new  one  made. 

164:9.  *^ 

It  bore  on  one  side  the  words  "  The  Great  Seal  of 
England/'  and  on  the  other,  "  In  the  first  year  of  freedom  by 
God's  blessing  restored  1648."* 

Seldom  has  a  great  change  in  a  nation's  government  been 
effected  with  so  little  bloodshed.  Three  royalists  and  four 
discontented  mutinous  soldiers  were  all  who  suffered  in  the 
mighty  revolution  which  converted  England  fi  om  a  monarchy 
into  a  republic.  The  remnant  of  Charles's  Long  Parliament 
still  continued  its  sittings,  but  the  House  of  Peers  was 
abolished,  and  the  government  vested  in  a  committee  called 
*'  The  Executive  Council  of  State."  Cromwell  and  other 
distinguished  members  of  the  army  were  of  this  council. 

Its  secretary  was  John  Milton.  Little  care  we  for  the  deeds 
of  state  recorded  by  the  •  Puritan  secretary ;  whilst  we  dwell 
with  enthusiasm  upon  those  glorious  descriptions  of  higher 
transactions  in  the  Court  of  Heaven,  which  fell  from  the  all 
but  inspired  pen  of  the  author  of  '^  Paradise  Lost." 

The  affairs  of  the  church  were  settled  by  allowing  greater 
toleration  than  had  ever  before  been  permitted  within  the 
realm.  In  the  army,  the  same  masterly  hands  which  had 
raised  it  to  such  a  pitch  of  greatness,  retained  the  command. 
In  the  navy,  Blake,  "  the  sea-hero  of  that  age,"  was  made 
high  admiral,  and  given  the  command  of  the  fleet. 

The  affairs  of  Ireland  were  in  a  most  distracted  condition. 
The  native  Irish  and  Romanists  had  risen  against  the  Pro- 

*  Old  Style. 


ENGLAND   A    COMxMONWEALTH.  267 

testant  English  of  the  Pale,  until  scarcely  a  town,  excepting 
Dublin  and  Derry,  were  left,  in  which  the  latter  could  feel 
safe.  The  Marquis  of  Ormond  had  proclaimed  Charles  (eldest 
son  of  the  late  king),  and  the  royal  standard  floated  over  the 
island.  Cromwell  and  Ireton  crossed  St.  George's  Channel 
with  nine  thousand  men.  Town  after  town  was  re- 
taken, and  the  spirit  of  insurrection  crushed. 
Ireland  was  quiet,  but  this  tranquillity  was  secured  at  the 
price  of  cruelty,  burning,  bloodshed,  and  massacre,  which  will 
ever  cast  a  stain  on  the  administration  of  Cromwell.  When 
Cromwell  had  broken  the  strength  of  the  rebellion,  he  re- 
crossed  the  Channel,  leaving  Ireton  to  finish  the  conquest, 
and  govern  the  country.  After  the  death  of  Ireton,  which 
occurred  some  years  later,  Cromwell's  second  son,  Henry,  was 
sent  into  Ireland.  Under  his  wise  and  good  administration, 
that  kingdom  Dot  only  enjoyed  quiet  but  prosperity. 

The  murder  of  the  king,  for  such  was  the  execution  of 
Charles  I.  considered  by  most  of  the  governments  abroad,  and 
by  the  royalists  at  home,  had  raised  up  a  host  of  enemies 
against  the  infant  commonwealth.  France,  Spain,  Portugal, 
and  Russia  committed  acts  of  hostility.  In  Holland,  six 
masked  royalists  fell  upon  the  English  minister  and  murdered 
him.  In  the  colony  of  Virginia,  the  authority  of  the  new 
government  was  denied,  and  the  fugitive  Prince  Charles  was 
invited  to  cross  the  ocean,  and  become  king  in  that  province. 
This  invitation  had  no  result,  save  winning  for  that  most 
loyal  colony  the  title  of  "  The  Old  Dominion." 

The  darkest  clouds  arose  from  Scotland.  There  Prince 
Charles  had  been  proclaimed,  and  invited  into  the  country. 
The  prince  was  at  Breda,  in  Holland,  when  he  received  the 
propositions  of  the  Scots.  In  them  lay  his  only  hope  of  a 
crown,  and  he  sailed  for  Scotland.  Before  he  left 
his  vessel,  which  anchored  in  Cromarty  Frith,  the 
prince  was  obliged  to  sign  the ''  Solemn  League  and  Covenant," 
and  he  entered  the- gates  of  Aberdeen,  over  which  were  hung 
the  limbs  of  that  loyal  partisan,  the  gallant  Marquis  of  Mon- 
trose. 


268  UISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

The  English  parliament  appointed  Cromwell  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army,  and  sent  him  into  Scotland.  At  Dunbar, 
about  twenty  miles  from  Edinburgh,  Cromwell,  with  only 
twelve  thousand  men,  was  surrounded  by  the  Scots,  whose 
forces  numbered  twenty-seven  thousand.  The  latter  were 
well  posted,  too,  on  the  hills  which  rise  above  the  town.  It 
was  unwise  to  attack  them  in  this  strong  position,  and  Crom- 
well waited.  On  the  second  day,  the  Scots,  animated  by  hopes 
of  certain  victory,  rushed  down  from  the  hills ;  whereupon 
Cromwell  joyously  exclaimed :  "  The  Lord  hath  delivered 
them  into  our  hands."  On  the  morning  of  the  3d  of  Sep- 
tember, a  mist  which  had  hung  over  the  field,  rolled  away, 
and  the  clear  sunlight  revealed  the  contending  armies.  "  Now^ 
let  God  arise,  and  let  his  enemies  be  scattered/'  shouted  the 
Puritan  general,  as  he  rushed  into  the  conflict.  Ere  it  ended, 
four  thousand  of  the  Scots  army  lay  upon  the  bloody  field,  and 
ten  thousand  prisoners  swelled  the  train  of  the  conquerors. 
Cromwell  oflered  praise  for  this  victory,  in  the  glowing  lan- 
guage of  King  David,  by  ordering  the  107th  Psalm  to  be 
sung  upon  the  battle-field.  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  other 
towns  submitted  to  the  Puritan  army. 

The  following  year,  whilst  Cromwell  was  besieging 
Edinburgh  Castle,  Charles  gathered  an  army  and 
marched  into  England,  hoping  to  be  joined  by  the  royalists, 
and,  with  their  aid,  to  gain  the  English  crown.  When  this 
news  reached  Cromwell,  he  started  at  once  in  pursuit.  At 
Worcester,  on  the  3d  September,  the  anniversary  of  the  battle 
of  Dunbar,  this  praying,  fighting,  praising,  Puritan  general 
gained  another  great  victory,  which  he  called  *'  his  crowning 
mercy."  No  doubt  he  felt  it  to  be  such,  for,  had  royalists  and 
Presbyterians  united  in  support  of  Prince  Charles,  the  power 
of  Cromwell  and  the  army  misjht  have  been  broken. 

As  it  was,  Charles  Stuart  became  a  fugitive,  indebted  for 
his  life  to  the  faithful  loyalty  of  a  family  of  Staffordshire 
wood-cutters.  In  the  humble  cottage  of  the  Penderells,  amid 
the  woody  shades  of  Boseobel,  he  lay  concealed  for  many 
weeks.     On  ouo  occasion,  the  thick  foliage  of  a  friendly  oak 


ENGLAND    A   COMMONWEALTH.  269 

sheltered  him  from  Cromwell's  troopers,  who,  passing  directly 
under  the  tree,  uttered,  in  gay  tones,  their  confident  hope  of 
olDtaining  the  price  set  upon  the  head  of  the  fugitive  Stuart. 
"  I  know  he  is  in  these  woods,"  were  words  that  reached  the 
ears  of  the  trembling  Charles,  as  his  pursuers  passed  and  re- 
passed under  the  boughs  of  the  Royal  Oak.  After  many 
romantic  and  perilous  adventures,  and  intrusting  the  secret 
to  forty  persons,  not  one  of  whom,  whether  of  high  or  low 
degree,  betrayed  him,  Charles  succeeded  in  escaping  to 
France. 

Meanwhile,  Cromwell  marched  to  London,  where  he  was 
received  with  great  enthusiasm.  Many  grounds  of  hostility 
existed  between  the  republic  of  Holland  and  the  common- 
wealth of  England,  and,  on  the  19th  July,  1652,  parliament 
declared  war  against  the  Dutch.  This  war  was  carried  on  at 
sea,  and  redounded  to  the  glory  of  the  English  navy.  The 
Dutch  had  three  celebrated  admirals :  Van  Tromp,  De  Ruyter, 
and  De  Witt.  They  were  skilful  navigators,  brave  seamen, 
and  veterans  in  naval  warfare.  To  these  the  English  opposed 
the  genius  and^  valor  of  Admiral  Blake. 

On  the  29th  November,  Van  Tromp,  with  a  fleet  of  eighty 
vessels  and  ten  fire  ships,  surprised  an  English  fleet  of  thirty- 
seven  ships  in  the  Downs.     Blake  gave  him  battle.     The 
conflict  lasted  from  ten  in  the  morning  until  six  in 
the  evening,  and  ended  in  the  triumph  of  the  Dutch. 
Van  Tromp  was  so  elated  with  his  victory  that  he  fastened  a 
hroom  to  the  mast-head  of.  his  ship,  to  indicate  his  intention 
of  sweeping  the  seag  of  every  EngHsh  fleet. 
•     But  this  Dutch  emblem  of  destruction  was  soon  to  be 
lowered  from  the  mast-head,  and,  before  the  war  was  ended, 
the  Dutch  struck  colors  still  more  essential  to  the  pride  of 
the  republic,  than  the  vaunting  broom  of  Van  Tromp.     In 
February,  Blake  again  engaged  the  Dutch  fleet,  and, 
after  three  days'  hard  fighting,  won  the  victory,  having 
sunk  eleven  of  the  enemy's  ships,  and  lost  only  one  of  his  own. 
Two  more  such  victories,  gained  the  following  summer,  closed 
the  war. 
23* 


270  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

The  last  of  these  engagements  commenced  at  five  o'clock  in 

the  morning  of  the  31st  of  July.  At  ten  o'clock,  the  brave 
Admiral  Van  Tromp,  fighting  in  the  hottest  of  the  battle,  was 
shot  to  the  heart  by  a  musket  ball.  "  And  no  sooner  was  his 
life  spent,  but  the  hearts  of  his  men  were  broken,  a  general 
consternation  suddenly  possessing  the  whole  fieet,  so  that  the 
seamen  had  more  mind  to  carry  home  the  news  of  their 
renowned  admiral's  death,  than  to  take  vengeance  on  the 
English  for  killing  him."  In  this  hard-fought  battle,  the 
English  navy  lost  only  two  ships,  whilst  thirty  of  the  Dutch 
vessels  were  destroyed.     With  it  ended  the  Dutch  War. 

Questions. — Describe  the  new  seal. — Mention  the  only  victims 
who  suffered  in  this  revolution. — Describe  the  changes  which  took 
place  in  the  government. — Who  was  Cromwell's  secretary  ? — Repeat 
the  mention  made  of  Milton. — What  is  told  in  relation  to  the  church, 
the  army,  and  the  navy  ? — Describe  the  condition  of  Ireland  at  this 
time. — Who  undertook  its  subjection? — Mention  the  circumstances 
with  which  it  was  effected  ? — Who  succeeded  Ireton  ? — What  was  the 
character  of  his  administration  ? 

What  countries  evinced  hostility  towards  England  ? — Describe  the 
conduct  of  Virginia. — What  course  had  been  taken  in  Scotland? — 
Describe  Charles  II. 's  reception  in  that  country. — Who  was  sent 
against  the  Scots? — Describe  the  battle  of  Dunbar. — What  followed 
upon  this  victoi'y  ? — Relate  Charles's  efforts  in  the  ensuing  year.— 
What  battle  was  fought  ? — With  what  result  ? — Relate  Charles's  ad- 
ventures in  Staffordshire. — Whither  did  he  finally  escape  ? 

Against  what  country  was  war  declared  in  1652? — Mention  the 
distinguished  naval  commanders  in  this  war. — Give  an  account  of 
the  battle  in  the  Downs. — What  effect  did  it  produce  upon  the 
Dutch? — Relate  the  victory  gained  by  the  English  the  following 
year. — Describe  the  battle  which  ended  the  war. 


CROMWELL   AS    LORD   PROTECTOR.  271 

CHAPTER  XLV. 

CROMWELL   AS    LORD   PROTECTOR.       * 

CROMWELL  AND  THE  PARLIAMENT — THE  PROTECTORSHIP — FOREIGN  POLICT 

THE  PURITAN  COURT — CROMWELL'S  DOMESTIC  AFFLICTION — HIS  DEATH 

— RICHARD  CROMWELL — RESTORATION  OP  MONARCHY. 

The  Long  Parliament  had  become  unpopular  with  the 
army,  and  with  the  nation.  It  was  split  into  factions,  and 
was  accused  of  being  unjust  and  self-seeking.  '^  We  all 
forget  God,  and  He  will  forget  us/'  exclaimed  Cromwell. 
"  God  will  give  us  up  to  confusion,  and  these  men 
will  help  it  on,  if  they  be  suffered  to  proceed  in  their 
ways ;  some  course  must  be  thought  of,  to  curb  and  restrain 
them,  or  we  shall  all  be  ruined."  And  truly  the  course  was 
decided  enough,  which  this  remarkable  man  took  to  avert  the 
ruin  he  feared. 

On  the  20th  April,  he  entered  the  house,  having  a  band 
of  soldiers,  whom  he  posted  at  the  door.  After  listening 
awhile  to  the  debate,  he  rose,  exclaiming :  "  Now  is  the  time 
— I  must  do  it,"  and,  telling  the  members  that  "  the  Lord 
had  done  with  them,"  he  ordered  in  his  soldiers,  who  cleared 
the  house.  When  the  last  member  had  departed,  Cromwell 
ordered  the  doors  to  be  locked,  and,  putting  the  keys  in  his 
pocket,  returned  to  Whitehall,  Thus  ended  the  famous  Long 
Parliament.  In  the  afternoon  of  the  same  day,  Cromwell 
went  to  Derby  House  and  dissolved  the  council  of  state. 

The  government  of  England  for  three  months  remained  in 
the  hands  of  Cromwell.  At  the  end  of  that  time  a  new  par- 
liament was  called,  generally  known  as  Barebone's  Parliament, 
from  the  name  of  one  of  its  leaders,  who  was  a  dealer  in 
leather.  This  parliament  was  far  from  being  an  assembly  of 
the  wisdom  of  the  nation,  and,  after  they  had  held  their 
sittings  for  five  months,  Cromwell  prevailed  upon  them  to 
dissolve,  and  resign  their  power  into  his  hands. 


272  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

A  council  of  officers  now  proclaimed  Cromwell 
^«b"o  Lord  Protector  of  the  Commonwealth  of  England. 
The  powers  of  government  were  to  be  shared  by  a 
parliament  to  assemble  in  less  than  six  months,  and  to  contain 
a  much  larger  representation  of  the  English  nation  than  had 
hitherto  met  in  that  body.  European  princes  hastened  now 
to  seek  the  favor  of  the  great  protector,  whose  wisdom  never 
appears  greater  than  when  viewed  in  connection  with  his 
foreign  policy.  Under  him  England  became  the  leading 
state  in  Europe. 

He  demanded  of  Spain,  free  trade  with  South 
America  and  the  West  Indies.  The  minister  of  that 
court  replied :  "  It  was  like  asking  for  the  king  of  Spain's 
two  eyes."  Cromwell,  who  declared  that  a  ship  of  war  was 
the  best  ambassador,  sent  immediately  a  fleet,  commanded  by 
Admiral  Penn,  to  the  West  Indies.  The  conquest  of  the 
valuable  island  of  Jamaica  was  the  result  of  this  expedition. 
Another  English  fleet,  under  Admiral  Blake,  suppressed  the 
Barbary  pirates  in  the  Mediterranean. 
Milton  had  prayed, 

♦'  Avenge,  0  Lord,  thy  slaughtered  saints,  wlft>se  bones 
Lie  scattered  on  the  Alpine  mountains  cold  ;" 

and  the  pen  of  the  poet,  and  the  power  of  the  protector,  were 
the  instruments  by  which  God  answered  the  prayer.  The 
duke  of  Savoy,  and  even  the  Pope,  quailed  before  the  strong 
arm  of  Cromwell,  and  the  sufi'ering  Waldenses  were  reheved 
from  persecution.  To  this  day,  amid  the  mountain  valleys 
of  Piedmont,  the  name  of  the  English  protector  lives  in 
grateful  remembrance. 

The  brilliant  success  of  Cromwell's  foreign  poUcy  did  not 
save  him  from  the  machinations  of  enemies  in  Eng- 
land.     Plots    and    conspiracies  were    rife,   not    only 
among  the  royalists,  but  also  among  the  Levellers,  or  Fifth 
Monarchy  Men.     The  latter  were  a  set  of  fierce  enthusiasts, 
who  dreamed  of  an  ideal  theocracy,  in  which  there  should  be 


CROMWELL   AS   LORD   PROTECTOR.  273 

no  king  but  Jesus  Christ,  and  no  parliament  but  a  council  of 
the  saints.  The  parliaments  which  met  after  Cromwell  had 
been  named  lord  protector,  did  not  co-operate  with  him. 

He  was  advised  by  some  to  make  himself  king,  and  to 
restore  hereditary  monarchy  to  England.  This  proposition 
Cromwell  decided  it  were  wisest  to  reject.  Refusing  to  be 
crowned,  he  was  solemnly  inaugurated  protector  of  the  king- 
dom at  Westminster  Hall,  on  the  26th  June,  1657.  The 
court  of  the  Puritan  protector,  graced  by  the  learning  of 
Archbishop  Usher,  the  presence  of  the  poets  Waller,  Marvell, 
and  Dryden,  and,  above  all,  irradiated  by  the  noble  genius  of 
Milton,  must  have  been  a  model  of  dignity,  elegance,  and 
high-toned  moral  excellence. 

In  addition  to  the  cares  of  public  life  which  harassed  his 
mind,  Cromwell  was  called  to  encounter  trials  of  a  private 
nature.  The  domestic  aiFections  of  the  protector  were  strong 
and  ardent,  and  the  death  of  a  favorite  daughter.  Lady  Clay- 
pole,  is  supposed  to  have  hastened  his  own.  He  died  on  the 
afternoon  of  the  3d  September,  1658,  on  the  anniversary  of 
his  great  victories  at  Dunbar  and  Worcester.  "  I  am  a  con- 
queror, and  more  than  a  conqueror,  through  Jesus  Christ, 
who  strengtheriteth  me,''  were  among  the  last  words  uttered 
by  the  great  protector,  ere  his  spirit  passed  away  from  earth. 

Richard  Cromwell  was  named  protector,  but  resigned  the 
office  in  a  few  months,  beinoj  utterly  unable  to  master 

1659.  /   _  »        y 

the  factious  spirit  which  now  prevailed  in  the  country. 
General  Lambert,  who  had  hopes  of  attaining  power,  com- 
manded the  army  in  England.  General  Monk  was  at  the 
head  Of  the  forces  in  Scotland.  The  latter  determined  to 
revive  the  cause  of  monarchy,  and  secure  the  restoration  of 
Prince  Charles.  The  remnant  of  the  Long  Parliament  had 
again  taken  their  seats,  and  Monk,  courting  their  favor,  so 
blinded" them  as  to  his  real  designs,  that  they  invited  him  to 
London,  supposing  he  would  secure  their  authority. 

x\ll  this  time  Monk  was  in  close  negotiation  with  Charles, 
who  was  at  his  old  refuge  in  Holland.  On  the  25th  of  April, 
a  new  parliament,  consisting  of  both  Lords  and  Commons,  as 

S 


274  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

in  the  days  before  the  Commonwealth,  assembled  at  West- 
tiiinster.     On  the  1st  of  May,  a  letter  from  Charles  was  pre- 
sented to  this  body,  who,  after  a  few  hours,  voted  a 

1660.  . 

loyal  answer  to  the  absent  prince.  All  the  slumbering 
feelings  of  loyalty  seemed  suddenly  to  awaken,  and  the  nation 
which  had  brought  his  royal  father  to  the  block,  now  rent  the 
air  with  shouts  of  "  Long  live  King  Charles  II. !"  The  new 
monarch,  with  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  York,  landed  at  Dover 
on  the  25th  of  the  same  month. 

Questions. — Repeat  Cromwell's  remarks  upon  the  Rump  Parlia- 
ment.— Relate  his  proceedings  towards  this  assembly. — What  fol- 
lowed its  dissolution  ? — Name  and  describe  the  next  parliament. — 
What  office  was  conferred  upon  Cromwell  in  1653  ? — By  whom  ? — 
By  whom  was  the  government  to  be  administered? — Describe  the 
protector's  conduct  with  regard  to  Spain. — Relate  the  advantages 
gained. — Describe  his  further  achievements  among  foreign  states. 

State  some  of  the  dangers  and  difficulties  to  which  Ci'omwell  was 
exposed  in  England. — What  is  remarked  of  the  court  of  the  pro- 
tector?— What  domestic  affliction  befell  Cromwell? — When  did  he 
die  ? — Repeat  some  of  his  last  words. — Relate  briefly  the  career  of 
his  successor. — Describe  the  conduct  of  General  Monk. — In  what 
did  it  result  ?— Describe  the  popular  feeling  at  this  time. 


CHAPTER  XLVI. 

CHARLES    II. 


ACTS     OP    PARLIAMENT — THE     REGICIDES — INGRATITUDE    OF    THE     KING 

SCOTLAND — FOREIGN    RELATIONS — PLOTS    AND    THEIR    CONSEQUENCES. 

On  the  29th  of  May,  1660,  the  exiled  Stuart  was  restored 
to  the  throne  of  England.  He  entered  London  through 
streets  hung  with  tapestry  and  garlands,  flowers  strewn  in  his 
path,  and  shouts  of  rejoicing  rending  the  aii.  The  return- 
ing tide  of  loyalty  overflowed  the  nation  with  a  force  which 
threatened  utter  destruction  to  every  landmark  of  constitu- 
tional right  which  the  last  thirty  years  had  set  up. 


CHARLES   II.  275 

Charles  II.  was  restored  to  the  throne  of  his  father  with 
Bcarce  a  limit  (save  the  word  of  a  Stuart)  to  the  royal  pre- 
rogative. The  duty  of  tonnage  and  poundage  was  granted  to 
the  king  for  life^  and  the  proposition  was  made  to  increase 
the  royal  income  to  ovef  a  miUion  pounds  a  year.  The  29th 
of  May,  the  anniversary  alike  of  his  birth  and  of  his  restora- 
tion, was  made  a  religious  festival. 

All  who  had* taken  part  in  the  death  of  the  late  king  were 
called  regicides,  and  their  lives  were  in  danger.  Many  fled 
to  other  lands,  and  the  colonies  of  New  England  received  not 
a  few  of  the  fugitives  of  the  Restoration.  About  twenty-nine 
were  put  to  death  in  the  most  cruel  manner,  and  even  the 
dead  bodies  of  the  leadinor  Puritans  were  not  allowed 

1661.  .        ,     . 

to  rest  in  their  graves. 

On  the  30th  of  January,  the  anniversary  of  the  execution 
of  King  Charles  I.,  the  remains  of  Cromwell,  Ireton,  and  the 
brave  naval  hero.  Admiral  Blake,  were  taken  from  their 
honored  tombs  in  Westminster  Abbey.  The  mouldering 
bodies  were  hung  upon  a  gibbet,  and  when  taken  down, 
were  thrown  with  every  mark  of  indignity  into  unconsecrated 
ground. 

The  Presbyterians,  who  had  been  active  in  recalling  the 
exiled  monarch,  trusting  that  his  gratitude  would  secure  their 
influence  in  bhe  state,  soon  found  cause  to  repent  their  confi- 
dence. The  church  of  England  was  restored,  and  all  dissent- 
ing clergymen^  Presbyterians  and  Puritans  alike,  were  obliged 
to  subscribe  to  an  "Act  of  Conformity"  to  the  Estab- 
lished Church,  or  to  be  turned  out  of  their  livings. 
Two  years  later,  a  '■'•  Conventicle  Act"  was  passed,  forbidding 
the  assembling  for  religious  worship,  anywhere  but  in  the 
churches  of  the  Establishment.  In  the  same  session  of 
parliament  in  which  this  act  was  passed,  the  law  obliging 
the  king  to  summon  parliament  once  in  three  years  was 
repealed. 

In  Scotland,  Charles  II.  forgot  the  gratitude  he  owed  to 
those  Presbyterians  who  had  been  the  first  to  espouse  his 
cause  in  his  contest  with  Cromwell.     "  I  placed  the  crown 


276  HISTORY   OF   EiNGLAND. 

upon  his  brow,  and  this  is  my  reward,"  said  the  Duke  of 
Argyle,  when  sentence  of  death  was  passed  against  him. 
Argyle  was  a  leading  Covenanter,  but  had  ever  been  a  steady 
friend  to  the  restored  Stuart. 

These  were  unhappy  days  for  the  lyrk  of  Scotland : 

"  The  assembled  people  dared  in  face  of  day  no  more 
To  worship  God,  or  even  at  the  dead 
Of  night,  save  when  the  wintry  storm  rave'd  fierce, 
And  thunder  peals  compelled  the  men  of  blood 
To  couch  within  their  dens." 

Often  these  little  congregations  of  Covenanters  and  Camero- 
nians  would  be  surprised,  even  in  their  wild  hiding-places,  by 
a  party  of  dragoons,  headed  by  the  fierce  and  cruel  Claver- 
house.  Many  were  led  forth  to  death;  others  were  subjected 
to  torture,  or  languished  in  prison-houses.  Many  became 
€xiles  to  a  land  of  religious  liberty,  and  the  infant  colonies 
of  America  received  valuable  additions  in  the  persecuted 
Covenanters  of  Scotland. 

The  cruelty  exercised  in  Scotland  by  Archbishop  Sharp 
€xcited  the  hatred  of  the  people,  and,  instead  of  establishing 
Episcopacy,  they  clung  with  almost  fanatical  ardor  to  the 
Covenant.  At  the  end  of  many  years  of  tyranny,  the  arch- 
bishop, whilst  riding  with  his  daughter,  was  waylaid  and 
barbarously  murdered  by  a  party  of  Covenanters,  headed  by 
an  enthusiast  named  John  Balfour.  Troops  were  sent  into 
Scotland.  The  Covenanters  were  defeated  in*  battle, — were 
hunted  and  dragged  from  their  hiding-places,  and  put  to 
death  without  mercy.  Horrible  tales  are  told  of  their  sufler- 
ings  within  the  remote  and  gloomy  prisons  of  Bass  Rock  and 
Dunbarton  Castle. 

The  military  and  political  history  of  this  reign  discloses 
little  else  than  treachery  on  the  part  of  King  Charles.  To 
obtain  money  for  his  own  extravagant  and  vicious  pleasures, 
seems  to  have  been  the  sole  object  of  this  king's  government. 
He  sold  to  the  French  king,  Dunkirk,  an  important  posses- 
sion on  the  coast  of  Flanders,  which  Cromwell  had  taken 


CHARLES   II.  277 

from  the  Spaniards.  This  measure  greatly  exasperated  the 
nation.  In  the  year  1664,  Charles,  hoping  to  secure  for  his 
own  pleasures  the  money  raised  for  the  expenses  of  the  army, 
declared  war  against  the  Dutch.  Scarcely  had  this  war  begun, 
ere  a  dreadful  plague,  the  most  fearful  which  had  ever  visited 
England,  spread  over  the  land.  In  London  alone,  one  hun- 
dred thousand  inhabitants  were  carried  off  in  the  space  of  five 
months.  The  following  year,  1666,  an  equally  terrible  fire, 
known  as  the  great  fire  of  London,  broke  out  in  the  capital, 
and  burned  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  city.  The  sailors, 
unpaid  and  starving,  were  dying  in  the  streets,  and  the  glory 
of  the  English  navy  was  fast  disappearing.  The  Dutch, 
under  their  admiral,  De  Ruyter,  sailed  up  the  Medway, 
destroyed  the  fortifications  at  Sheerness,  burned  some  of  the 
finest  English  ships,  and  threatened*  the  city  of  London. 
Charles  was  now  glad  to  end  a  war  which  had  been  pro- 
ductive of  little  good  to  the  country. 

When  peace  was  made,  the  people  clamored  against 
the  Earl  of  Clarendon,  who  was  accused  of  having 
advised  this  now  unpopular  war.  The  chancellor,  to  escape 
the  fate  of  Strafford,  fled  to  France,  and  the  government  fell 
into  the  hands  of  a  set  of  men,  known  as  the  Cabal,  from  the 
initial  letters  of  their  names :  Clifford,  Arlington,  Bucking- 
ham, Ashley,  and  Lauderdale. 

In  1669,  Charles  pretended  to  become  a  party  to  what  was 
known  as  the  Triple  Alliance ;  a  union  of  England,  Holland, 
and  Sweden,  against  the  ambitious  monarch  of  France,  Louis 
XIV.  Whilst  the  English  ambassador  was  negotiating  this 
alliance  at  the  Hague,  the  king  was  entering  into  a 
secret  treaty  with  the  French  monarch,  promising,  for 
an  annual  pension  of  two  hundred  thousand  pounds,  to  keep 
true  to  the  interests  of  that  despot,  and  to  aid  him  in  con- 
quering Holland.  Two  years  later,  relying  on  the  money  of 
the  French  king,  Charles,  without  his  parliament's  consent, 
began  a  war  against  the  Dutch. 

The  whole  power  of  France,  aided  by  England,  was  now 
turned  against  the  republic  of  Holland.     But  the  Dutch  were 
24 


278  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

not  to  be  destroyed.     They  opened  their  dikes;  the  ocean 
flowed  in  and  washed  over  their  villaoes  and  famis,  so 

1673.  °  ' 

that  no  enemy  could  get  to  Amsterdam.  Under  the 
young  Prince  of  Orange  (a  nephew  of  Charles  II.,  afterwards 
William  III.  of  England),  they  maintained  a  long  and  ob- 
stinate struggle.  Their  famous  admirals,  De  Ruyter  and 
De  Witt,  gained  several  important  victories  over  the  com- 
,„^.     bined  fleets  of  France  and   Enerland :    and,  in  less 

1674:.  .... 

than  two  years,  Charles  II.,  in  spite  of  his  promises 
to  Louis,  was  forced  to  make  peace  with  the  brave  republic. 

In  the  year  1677,  the  Prince  of  Orange  was  married  to  his 
cousin  Mary,  eldest  child  of  James,  Duke  of  York,  the  brother 
of  the  English  king.  The  reign  of  Charles  was  disturbed,  at 
different  times,  by  plots,  or  suspicions  of  plots,  attributed  both 
to  Roman  Catholics  ?md  Dissenters,  who  were  equally  op- 
pressed by  the  severe  laws  passed  against  them.  One  of 
these  plots  was  devised  by  an  infamous  man  named  Titus 
Oat«s.  He  pretended  that  whilst  in  a  Jesuit  college  on  the 
continent,  he  had  found  out  a  plan  laid  by  the  Romanists  to 
murder  the  king,  and  give  the  government  of  Eng- 
land into  the  hands  of  the  Jesuits. 
Although  there  was  not  the  slightest  evidence  that  any 
such  conspiracy  existed,  the  feeling  against  Popery  was  so 
strong,  that  the  nation  became  greatly  excited.  A  bill  was 
passed  preventing  Roman  Catholics  from  sitting  as  members 
of  either  house;  nor  did  they  regain  their  seats  in  the  English 
parliament  until  the  passage  of  the  Catholic  Emancipation 
Bill,  in  1829.  Shortly  after  the  above  enactment,  the  parha- 
ment,  which  had  lasted  seventeen  years,  was  dissolved. 

•Two  other  parliaments  were  called  during  this  reign.  The 
first  of  these  passed  the  celebrated  act  of  Habeas  Corpus, 
which  provides  against  unjust  detention  in  prison 
without  trial.  A  bill  was  introduced  to  exclude 
Jam'es,  Duke  of  York,  who  was  a  Roman  Catholic,  from  the 
throne.  Charles,  fearing  lest  this  bill  should  be  carried,  took 
advantage  of  the  repeal  of  the  Triennial  Act,  and  suddenly 
dissolved  parliament,  in  January,   1681.     A  new  one  waa 


CHARLES   II. 


27* 


assembled  in  March  of  the  same  year,  but  as  the  bill  of 
exclusion  was  again  brought  up,  the  king  dissolved  it  at  the 
end  of  the  first  week. 

The  terms  Whig  and  Tory  now  became  general.  The 
Whigs  were  opposed  to  Popery  and  absolute  rule,  and  desired 
to  exclude  a  Papist  from  the  throne.  The  Tories  sided  with 
the  king,  and  were  generally  High-Churchmen  or  Roman 
Catholics. 

A  plot,  known  as  the  Rye-House  Plot  (because  the 
conspirators  met  at  a  place  called  The  Rye,  in  Hert- 
fordshire), caused  the  death  of  two  noble,  virtuous,  and  accom- 
plished men — Lord  Russell  and  Algernon  Sidney.  They 
were  accused  of  conspiring  against  the  life  of  Charles  II.  and 
the  Duke  of  York,  and  of  designing  to  place  a  Protestant  king 
upon  the  throne.  They  were  tried  by  a  court  composed  of 
both  political  and  personal  enemies,  and  received  with  the 
calmness  and  dignity  of  conscious  virtue,  the  sentence  of 
death  which  was  pronounced  against  them. 

The  prosecutions  of  those  implicated  in  these  plots  were 
conducted  by  the  infamous  Lord  Jeffries,  a  man  who  now 
began  a  career  of  cruel  oppression,  which  has  rendered  his 
name  hateful  to  every  lover  of  justice  and  virtue. 

In  the  year  1683,  the  Princess  Anne,  the  Duke  of  York's 

second  daughter,  married  Prince  George  of  Denmark.     Two 

years  later,  Charles  II.  died.     Previous  to  his  death, 

1685.    *'  '  ' 

a  Roman  Catholic  priest  was  privately  introduced 
into  his  chamber,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  he  died  in  the 
communion  of  the  church  of  Rome.  He  had  married  Cathe- 
rine of  Braganza,  a  Portuguese  princess,  but  she  had  borne 
him  no  children,  and  the  crown  passed  to  his  brother,  James, 
Duke  of  York. 

Questions. — What  is  the  date  of  the  Restoration? — Describe 
Charles's  entry  into  London. — Mention  the  imprudence  of  the  na- 
tion on  this  occasion. — What  became  of  those  who  had  taken  part 
in  the  death  of  the  king? — Mention  the  outrage  offered  to  the  re- 
mains of  distinguished  Puritans. — Describe  the  king's  treatment  of 
Protestant   Dissenters. — Relate  Charles's   ingratitude   towards   th« 


280  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

Duke  of  Argyle. — Describe  the  unhappy  condition  of  the  Scotch 
church  at  this  time. — What  was  the  fate  of  Archbishop  Sharp? — 
Describe  the  sufferings  of  the  Cameronians. 

Mention  the  dishonorable  acts  committed  by  Charles  in  order  to 
obtain  money. — Describe  the  two  calamities  which  befell  London  in 
the  years  1605  and  1066. — What  was  at  this  time  the  condition 
of  the  navy  ? — Relate  the  disaster  which  befell  England  in  conse- 
quence.— Of  what  was  the  minister  Clarendon  accused  ? — How  did 
he  protect  himself? — Into  whose  hands  did  the  government  then 
fall  ? — Relate  the  king's  treacherous  conduct  during  the  year  1669. 
— Against  what  country  did  he  declare  war  three  years  later  ? — 
Describe  the  spirit  and  conduct  of  the  Dutch. — In  what  did  it 
result  ? 

What  classes  of  English  subjects  were  tempted  to  form  conspira- 
cies against  the  government  ? — Describe  the  one  known  as  Titus 
Oates's  Plot. — What  bill  was  passed  in  consequence  of  this  plot? — 
Name  the  important  act  passed  in  parliament  in  1679. — What  bill 
of  exclusion  was  brought  in  ? — How  did  Charles  prevent  its  being 
carried? — What  two  political  parties  existed  at  this  time? — Describe 
their  respective  aims. — What  plot  was  discovered  in  1683? — What 
distinguished  men  suffered  in  consequence  of  this  conspiracy  ? — 
Relate  the  circumstances  of  Charles's  death. — Who  succeeded  to  the 

r.rcxMirn  ? 


CHAPTER  XLVII. 

THE   FIRST    YEAR   OF    THE   REIGN    OF   JAMES   II. 

HIS   DECLARATIONS  —  HIS    CONDUCT — ARGYLE  —  MONMOUTH — CRUELTIES — 
JEFFRIES, 

When  King  James  came  to  the  throne,  he  told  his  council 
that  he  intended  to  preserve  the  government,  both  in 
church  and  state,  as  it  was  already  by  law  established; 
that  he  would  support  and  defend  the  church  of  England, 
and  preserve  the  nation  in  all  its  just  laws  and  privileges. 
This  declaration  gave  great  joy,  and  no  opposition  was  made 
to  his  coming  to  the  throne. 

In  a  few  days,  however,  his  actions  proved  the  falsity  of 


JAMES    II.  281 

these  fair  words.  He  caused  the  Romish  chapel  to  be  opened, 
and  went  publicly  to  mass.  He  proclaimed  that  his  brother, 
the  late  king,  had  died  in  communion  with  the  church  of 
Rome,  and  he  caused  the  most  barbarous  punishment  to  be 
inflicted  on  Titus  Oates,  the  author  of  one  of  the  plots  against 
the  Roman  Catholics  in  Charles's  reign. 

The  revenue  granted  to  Charles  for  life,  of  course  ceased  at 
his  death,  but  James,  acting  by  the  advice  of  Judge  Jefi"ries, 
continued  to  levy  it  without  calling  a  parliament.  He  also 
courted  the  aid  and  begged  the  money  of  France,  to  render 
him  independent  of  parliament.  When  parliament  met,  a 
revenue  of  a  million  pounds  for  life  was  voted  to  the  king, 
and  large  supplies  of  money  to  repel  the  threatened  invasion 
of  the  Dukes  of  Argyle  and  Monmouth. 

Argyle  was  a  Scotch  Protestant  nobleman,  a  son  of  the  duke 
who  had  suffered  death  at  the  Restoration.  Monmouth  was 
an  illegitimate  son  of  Charles  II. ;  an  ardent  Protestant,  and 
very  much  beloved  by  the  lower  classes  of  the  English. 
These  noblemen  met  in  Holland,  and  planned  an  invasion  to 
drive  James  from  his  throne,  and  establish  the  Protestant 
religion  in  the  three  kingdoms.  The  Duke  of  Argyle  was  to 
land  on  the  western  coast  of  Scotland,  where  his  own  clan  and 
the  Covenanters  were  strongest.  Monmouth,  at  the  same 
time,  was  to  invade  the  south-west  of  England. 

The  Scottish  duke  appeared,  with  a  mere  handful  of  men,  in 
the  Western  Highlands,  but  Monmouth  lingered  in  Holland. 
Few  gathered  to  the  standard  of  Argyle,  who  soon  fell  into 
the  hands  of  his  enemies,  and  was  put  to  death.  His  fol- 
lowers were  seized,  and  met  their  death  courageously.  One 
of  them  confessed  his  share  in  the  invasion,  boldl;)^  declaring 
that  it  was  a  sacred  duty  to  resist  tyrants,  and  that  "  he  did 
not  beheve  that  Grod  had  made  the  greater  part  of  mankind 
with  saddles  on  their  backs,  and  bridles  in  their  mouths ;  and 
some  few,  booted  and  spurred,  to  ride  the  rest." 

Another,  when  examined  before  James,  was  reminded  by 
that  monarch,  that  it  was  in  his  power  to  pardon  him.  '^  It 
is  in  your  power*'  replied  the  undaunted  prisoner,  "  but  not 
24* 


282  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

in  your  nature"  The  truth  of  this  bold  repartee  was  con- 
firmed, not  only  by  the  sentence  of  death,  which  James  pro- 
nounced against  the  man  who  uttered  it,  but  by  all  the  acts 
of  his  cruel  reign. 

About  a  week  before  the  defeat  of  Argyle,  the  Duke  of 
Monmouth  landed  in  Dorsetshire.  There  and  in  Somerset- 
shire he  was  received  with  enthusiasm  by  the  lower  classes, 
but  few  men  of  note  joined  him.  He  entered  Taunton 
through  streets  strewn  with  flowers;  a  band  of  young  maidens 
presented  him  with  a  Bible,  and  a  standard  wrought  by  their 
own  hands.  Monmouth  received  the  Bible  with  reverence, 
and  declared  he  had  come  to  defend  the  truths  which  it 
contained.  He  assumed  the  title  of  king,  and  advanced 
slowly  into  the  country.  He  wasted  much  time  in  trying  to 
drill  and  discipline  his  army  of  peasants  and  raw  recruits. 
Many  proved  treacherous,  and  when  he  encountered  the 
king's  forces  at  Sedgemoor,  he  was  totally  defeated.  Mon- 
mouth fled  from  the  field,  and  wandering  about  for  some  days, 
was  at  length  discovered,  in  the  disguise  of  a  peasant,  crouch- 
ing in  a  ditch  half  hidden  by  ferns  and  nettles.  He  begged 
to  see  the  king,  and  when  conducted  into  his  presence,  pleaded 
hard  for  his  life.  His  petition  was  refused,  and,  after  a  few 
days'  imprisonment  in  the  Tower,  this  unhappy  pretender  was 
beheaded. 

The  consequences  of  this  rebellion  were  terrible  to  those 
who  were  in  any  degree  implicated  in  it.  Colonel  Kirk,  a 
soldier,  who  had  once  been  governor  of  Tangiers,  and  who 
certainly  vied  with  heathen  Moors  in  barbarity,  was  sent  into 
Somersetshire  to  punish  the  rebels.  He  and  his  soldiers 
plundered^  burned,  and  killed.  But  even  their  atrocities 
were  merciful,  compared  to  the  infamous  cruelties  of  Judge 
Jeff"ries,  who  was  sent  to  try  all  who  had  taken  part  in  the 
rebellion. 

It  would  be  painful  to  dwell  upon  the  wickedness  of  this 
most  wicked  judge.  The  old,  the  Infirm,  the  young  and 
helpless,  women  and  children,  were  alike  condemned  to  prison, 
torture,  and  death.     To  these  "  Bloody  Assizes,"  as  the  infa- 


JAMES  11.  283 

mous  trials  were  justly  called,  hundreds  of  the  Protestant 
yeomen  of  England  fell  victims.  In  Somersetshire,  the 
streets  of  thirty-six  villages  were  filled  with  the  heads  and 
limbs  of  these  victims,  hung  in  every  conspicuous  place,  and 
even  "  over  the  very  churches  devoted  to  a  merciful  God." 

''England,"  says  a  writer,  "was  now  an  Aceldama;  the 
country  for  sixty  miles  together,  from  Bristol  to  Exeter,  had 
a  new  and  terrible  sort  of  sign-posts  and  signs, — gibbets,  and 
heads  and  quarters  of  its  slaughtered  inhabitants."  Many 
were  sold  as  slaves  in  the  American  colonies  and  in  the  West 
Indies. 

Questions. — What  declarations  and  promises  were  made  by 
James  II.  at  his  accession  ? — Describe  the  acts  of  the  king  which 
falsified  these  promises. — By  what  illegal  acts  did  he  raise  his  reve- 
nue ? — For  what  purpose  did  parliament  vote  money  ? — Give  an 
account  of  Argyle's  invasion. — In  what  did  it  result? — Mention 
James'  conduct  towards  some  of  the  prisoners  who  fell  into  his 
hands. — Relate  the  history  of  Monmouth's  rebellion. — Describe 
some  of  its  fearful  consequences. — Mention  the  atrocities  of  Judge 
Jeffries. 


CHAPTER  XL VIII. 

THE  LAST   YEARS   OF   THE   REIGN   OP   JAMES   H. 

EFFORTS  OF  THE  KING  TO  RESTORE  ROMANISM — THE   NATION'S   RESISTANCB 
REVOLUTION — WILLIAM  OF  ORANGE. 

Having  suppressed  rebellion,  James  proceeded  to  execute 
his  favorite  design, — that  of  restoring  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion  to  England.  In  defiance  of  the  Test  Act,  a  law 
which  had  been  passed  in  the  previous  reign,  forbidding 
all  public  employments  to  those  who  were  not  members  of  the 
Established  Church,  he  filled  the  army  with  Roman  Catholic 
soldiers  and  officers,  asserting  the  right  to  suspend  or  entirely 
dispense  with  all  laws,  or  acts  of  parliament  whataoever.     I» 


284  HISTORY   OP   ENGLAND. 

Ireland,  arms  were  taken  from  the  Protestants,  whilst  the 
Roman  Catholics  were  allowed  to  possess  them. 

The  Irish  Romanists  were  not  likely  to  use  with  modera- 
tion, the  power  thus  given  them  over  enemies  of  another  race 
and  faith,  who  for  more  than  five  hundred  years  had  been  the 
triumphant  oppressors  of  their  country. 

In  1687,  on  the  4th  of  April,  the  king  published  a  "Decla- 
raration  of  Indulgence,"  which  granted  toleration  for  religious 
worship  to  all  Christian  bodies,  Roman  Catholics  and  Dis- 
senters alike.  The  people  of  England  saw  through  James' 
design  in  this  act.  They  knew  it  was  only  passed  to  favor 
his  own  religion,  until  he  should  obtain  sufficient  power  to 
establish  it  in  the  land,  without  toleration  for  other  modes  of 
faith.  The  great  body  of  the  Dissenters,  therefore,  refused  to 
acknowledge  the  power  of  the  king  to  grant  this  Indulgence, 
although  it  would  release  them  from  long  years  of  banish- 
ment, imprisonment,  and  disgrace.  Among  those  who  refused 
were  Baxter,  Howe,  and  Bunyan.  They  united  with  the 
church  of  England  in  opposing  the  Declaration. 

James,  having  introduced  into  his  court  and  army  a  goodly 
number  of  Roman  Catholics,  proceeded  to  impose  sucli  upon 
the  universities  and  public  schools.  Oxford  and  Cambridge 
had  ever  shown  themselves  loyal,  but  they  resisted  this  un- 
precedented invasion  of  their  privileges,  and  although  James 
forced  upon  Magdalen  College,  at  Oxford,  a  Romish  master, 
it  was  only  after  a  manful  and  noble  resistance  on  the  part 
of  that  ancient  and  wealthy  institution. 

On  the  27th  of  April,  1688,  James  commanded  the  Decla- 
ration of  Indulgence  to  be  read  in  all  the  churches.  There 
were  over  ten  thousand  clergy  in  the  Established  Church. 
Of  this  number,  two  hundred  alone  complied  with  the  royal 
command.  "  In  London,  there  were  about  one  hundi%d 
parish  churches.  In  only  four  of  these  was  the  order  in 
council  obeyed.  At  St.  Gregory's  the  Declaration  was  read  by 
a  divine  of  the  name  of  Martin.  No  sooner  had  he  uttered 
the  first  words,  than  the  whole  congregation  rose  and  with- 
drew."     Samuel  Wesley,  the  father  of  John   and  Charles 


JAMES  II.  285 

Wesley,  a  curate  in  London,  took  for  his  text  that  day  the 
noble  answer  of  the  three  Jews  to  the  Chaldean  tyrant :  "  Be 
it  known  unto  thee,  0  king,  that  we  will  not  serve  thy  gods, 
nor  worship  the  golden  image  which  thou  hast  set  up." 

The  archbishop  of  Canterbury  (Bancroft)  and  six  other 
bishops  drew  up  a  petition  to  the  king,  affirming  that  they 
did  not  refuse  the  Declaration  "  from  any  want  of  duty  and 
obedience  to  his  majesty,  nor  yet  from  any  want  of  tender- 
ness to  dissenters,"  but  because  it  claimed  a  power  which 
parliament  had  declared  illegal,  and  the  king  had  no  right  to 
do  away  with  the  laws  passed  by  that  body,  without  its  con- 
sent. The  primate  and  the  bishops  were  thrown  into  the 
Tower,  and  brought  to  trial  on  the  charge  of  seditious  libel. 

On  the  way  to  and  from  their  prison  to  Westminster  Hall, 
they  were  greeted  with  the  greatest  enthusiasm.  The 
banks  of  the  Thames  were  lined  with  people,  who  fell 
on  their  knees,  imploring  the  blessing  of  the  stout-hearted 
prelates,  and  even  the  dissenters  sent  ministers  to  condole 
with,  and  encourage  them.  The  jury  who  sat  on  the  bishops' 
trial  was  a  packed  jury :  that  is,  men  were  selected  who  were 
more  likely  to  condemn  than  to  acquit  the  prisoners.  But 
even  this  jury  and  the  subservient  judges  dared  not  withstand 
the  strong  feeling  of  the  whole  nation. 

The  trial,  which  took  place  on  the  29th  of  June,  lasted 
throughout  the  entire  day.  All  night  the  jury  considered 
the  verdict.  At  9  o'clock  the  next  morning  the  court  re- 
opened, and  a  verdict  of  ^'  not  guilty"  was  rendered.  "  Then 
there  arose  a  loud  huzza  from  the  noblemen,  gentlemen,  and 
people  within  the  court,  which  anon  was  echoed  back  by  a 
louder  huzza  from  those  without,  which  sounded  like  a  crack 
of  the  ancient  roof  of  Westminster  Hall,  and  which  was 
passed  on  from  group  to  group,  to  Temple  Bar,  and  unto  the 
heart  of  the  city.  There  was  a  lane  of  people  to  the  water- 
side, all  on  their  knees  as  the  bishops  passed  and  repassed, 
to  beg  their  blessing.  The  delivered  prelates  bade  them  fear 
Grod  and  honor  the  king." 

James  was  at  Hounslow  Heath,  reviewing  -the  army,  when 


286  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

the  shouts  from  the  city,  echoed  back  by  those  from  the 
camp,  fell  upon  his  ear.  Ou  asking  the  meaning  of  it,  he 
was  told  it  ''  was  nothing  but  the  soldiers  shouting,  because 
of  the  acquittal  of  the  Bishops."  ^'  Call  you  that  nothing  ?" 
said  the  king;  and  very  good  reason  had  James  to  fear  that  it 
was  no  insignificant  outburst  of  popular  feeling.  At  night 
the  city  blazed  with  bonfires,  and  the  Pope  was  burned  in 
effigy  before  the  palace.  Notwithstanding  the  excitement 
of  the  mob,  but  a  single  life  was  lost,  that  of  a  parish 
beadle,  who  was  shot  by  the  servants  of  a  Roman  Catholic 
nobleman. 

Meanwhile  the  birth  of  a  royal  heir  had  been  announced. 
This  event  took  place  on  Trinity  Sunday,  the  10th  of  June. 
It  was  hailed  with  rejoicing  by  the  king,  but  produced  great 
anxiety  and  depression  among  the  Protestant  portion  of  the 
nation.  Many  declared,  that  the  new-born  infant  was  not 
the  offspring  of  the  king  and  queen,  but  a  child  imposed 
upon  the  people,  to  secure  the  succession  of  a  Roman  Catholic 
and  Stuart  dynasty. 

The  court  issued  orders  for  the  observance  of  a  day  of 
national  thanksgiving,  and  shortly  after,  the  order  in  council 
went  forth,  for  inserting  the  name  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  in 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  But  the  incredulity  and  antipa- 
thy of  the  Protestants  were  not  easily  overcome.  They  were 
ready  to  interpret  the  most  accidental  circumstances  as  signs 
of  ill-omen.  The  night  of  the  celebration  for  the  birth  of  the 
young  prince,  was  black  and  gloomy,  and  the  fire-worts 
proved  a  complete  failure.  This  was  declared  by  the  popu- 
lace to  be  a  clear  token  of  the  anger  of  the  Almighty  at  the 
imposition  practised  by  the  Stuart  king  towards  the  Protest- 
ant heirs  of  the  throne. 

And  now  the  nation  resolved  to  turn  for  deliverance  to 
William,  Prince  of  Orange,  who  had  married  the  Princess 
Mary,  the  eldest  daughter  of  James. 

In  the  old  manor-house,  known  as  Lady  Place,  situated 
in  Berkshire,  in  a  romantic  valley  on  the  banks  of  the 
Thames,   the    party    met    who    planned    the    revolution  •  of 


JAMES   II.  287 

1688.  There,  papers  were  drawn  up,  and  signed  by  many  of 
the  influential  men  of  the  kingdom,  inviting  William  of 
Orange  to  take  the  throne. 

In  August,  William  collected  a  large  army  and  fleet,  but 
with  so  much  secrecy  that  it  was  the  middle  of  September 
before  James  became  aware  of  his  danger.  Then  he  sought 
by  fair  promises  to  win  back  the  hearts  of  his  people ;  but, 
while  restoring  Protestants  to  their  lost  honors  and  oflBces, 
he  had  his  infant  son,  James  Francis  Edward,  baptized 
according  to  the  rites  of  the  Roman  church ;  the  Pope,  in 
the  person  of  his  nuncio,  standing  as  godfather.  This  action 
spoke  louder  than  any  words,  and  James  strove  in  vain  to 
recover  the  confidence  of  the  nation. 

On  the  5th  November,  the  anniversary  of  the  Gunpowder 
Plot,  William  landed  at  Torbay.  In  the  meanwhile,  James' 
courtiers  were  deserting  him  daily.  The  Prince  of  Denmark 
supped  with  him  one  night,  and  the  next  morning  went  over 
to  the  Prince  of  Orange.  His  wife  (James'  second  daughter, 
Anne),  influenced  by  the  fascinating  Lady  Churchill,  followed 
her  husband's  example.  James,  when  he  heard  it,  exclaimed 
with  tears  :  "  God  help  me  !  my  very  children  have  forsaken 
me." 

By  this  time  the  country  was  all  in  arms  for  William,  and 
James  saw  there  was  nothing  left  for  him  but  flight.  On  a 
cold  December  night  the  queen  fled,  with  her  infant,  across 
the  Thames,  "  lighted  on  her  doleful  way  by  the  burning  of 
Popish  chapels."  Thence  she  escaped  to  the  seashore,  and 
was  conveyed  in  a  yacht  to  Calais.  The  king  followed,  but 
was  discovered  and  brought  back.  The  populace,  although 
they  destroyed  the  property  of  Roman  Catholics,  committed 
no  murders.  Even  when  Jefi'ries  was  detected,  disguised  as 
a  sailor,  he  was  not  left  in  their  hands,  although  the  mob 
followed  the  carriage  which  conveyed  him  to  the  Tower, 
with  shouts  of  rage. 

James  was  conveyed  to  Rochester,  whence  he  made  a 
second  and  more  successful  escape.  His  flight  could  not  but 
be  a  great  relief  to  William,  and  no  vigilance  was  used  to 


288  HISTORY   OF  ENGLAND. 

prevent  it.  On  Christmas  Day,  he  landed  at  the  fishing 
village  of  Ambleteuse,  on  the  opposite  shore  of  the  Channel, 
and  proceeded  with  but  little  delay  to  the  court  of  the  French 
king. 

Questions. — Describe  the  conduct  of  King  James  with  regard  to 
religion. — What  extravagant  claim  did  he  assert  ? — Relate  his  con- 
duct towards  the  inhabitants  of  Ireland. — Describe  his  treatment 
of  tiie  universities. — What  declaration  was  passed  by  the  king  in 
April,  1687  ? — How  was  it  regarded  by  the  Dissenters  ? — Describe 
their  action  on  this  occasion. — Relate  in  this  connection  the  conduct 
of  the  clergy  of  the  Established  Church. — Describe  the  petition  of 
the  seven  bishops. — What  treatment  did  they  experience  in  conse- 
quence ? — Relate  the  history  of  their  trial,  and  state  its  result. — 
Describe  the  king's  emotion  on  receiving  the  intelligence. 

What  event  hastened  the  downfall  of  the  king  ? — To  whom  did  the 
nation  turn  for  deliverance  ? — In  what  manner  was  he  invited  into 
the  kingdom  ? — Describe  James'  conduct  when  made  aware  of  his 
danger. — Relate  the  success  which  attended  William's  invasion. — 
Describe  the  escape  of  the  queen. — What  befell  James  ? — Describe 
the  conduct  of  the  populace. — Mention  James'  second  attempt  at 
escape. — State  the  result. 


CHAPTER  XLIX. 

THE  FIRST  THREE  YEARS  OF  THE  REIGN  OF  WILLIAM  HI. 

SETTLEMENT     OF     THE     CROWN — CHARACTER     OF    THE     KING RESISTANCE 

IN    SCOTLAND — IN   IRELAND — SIEGE    OF    LONDONDERRY — WILLIAM'S    VIC- 
TORIES. 

After  the  flight  of  James,  a  convention  met,  declared  the 

throne  vacant,  and  invited  William  and  Mary,  Prince  and 

Princess  of  Orange,  to  fill  it.     A  member  of  this  convention 

remarked :    "  I  have   heard  that  the  king  has  his 

1689.        ...  ^ 

divine  right ;  but  we,  the  people,  have  a  divine  right 
too."  In  settling  the  crown  on  the  new  king,  the  rights  of 
the  people  were  better  defined  than  they  had  ever  been  before. 


WILLIAM    III.  289 

The  power  of  the  sovereign  was  limited  by  the  constitution^  or 
the  laws  which  were  to  govern  the  kingdom.  In  the  reign 
of  William  III.,  England  became  a  constitutional  limited 
monarchy )  under  which  form  of  government  she  has  risen  to 
a  proud  eminence  of  national  greatness  and  prosperity. 

Some  were  for  giving  William  the  throne  in  right  of  his 
wife,  the  Princess  Mary,  she  being  the  daughter  of  James. 
But  the  prince  declined  taking  any  part  in  the  government, 
unless  the  authority  were  put  in  his  own  hands.  "  If  you 
think  fit  to  settle  it  otherwise,"  he  said,  "  I  will  not  oppose 
you,  but  will  go  back  to  Holland,  and  meddle  no  more  in 
your  afikirs."  The  full  exercise  of  the  regal  power  was  finally 
put  into  the  hands  of  William,  and  in  F'ebruary,  1689,  the 
Prince  and  Princess  of  Orange  were  proclaimed  king  and 
queen  of  England. 

The  primate  and  seven  bishops,  and  about  four  hundred 
of  the  clergy,  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  Wil- 
liam. They  received  the  name  of  non-jurors,  were  ejected 
from  their  sees  and  livings,  but  not  otherwise  persecuted. 
Parliament  granted  the  king  a  yearly  revenue  of  one  million 
two  hundred  thousand  pounds,  half  of  which  was  to  defray 
the  expenses  of  the  royal  household  and  of  certain  civil 
offices.  This  was  called  the  Civil  List.  The  remainder  was 
to  be  appropriated  in  defence  of  the  kingdom.  Parliament 
required,  moreover,  that  there  should  be  laid  before  it,  an 
estimate  of  the  expenditure  of  the  army  and  navy.  The 
requisite  appropriations  being  then  made,  it  was  carefully 
looked  to,  that  the  sums  voted  for  these  purposes  should  be 
employed  in  no  other  way.  This  account,  demanded  by  the 
Commons,  for  the  proper  application  of  supplies,  proved  an 
important  check  to  extravagance,  in  which  English  monarchs 
had  formerly  indulged. 

In  matters  of  religion,  the  monarch  was  inclined  to  a  gene- 
rous toleration.  When  a  committee  presented  him  with  the 
Scotch  coronation  oath,  William  stopped  at  the  clause  which 
required  him  to  "root  out  all  heretics,  &c.,"  and  said  to  the 
commissioners :  "  I  will  not  oblige  myself  to  become  a  per- 
25  T 


-90  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

secutor."  After  strenuous  efforts,  Williairi  prevailed  upon 
parliament  to  pass  a  bill  allowing  free  toleration  to  all  Christ- 
ians, excepting  Roman  Catholics.  The  king  would  fain  have 
included  them,  but,  in  the  temper  of  the  nation,  it  was 
impossible. 

In  Scotland,  the  chiefs  of  many  of  the  wild  Highland  clans 
declared  for  James  II.  Their  leader  was  Graham,  of  Claver- 
house,  whom  James  had  created  Viscount  Dundee.  They 
hated  Argyle  and  the  Lowland  lords  who  had  submitted  to 
William.  A  body  of  these  fierce  Highlanders,  commanded 
by  Dundee,  met  their  foes  in  a  mountain  defile  of  the  Gram- 
pians, known  as  the  pass  of  Killiecrankie.  The  Lowlanders 
fled  before  the  fierce  onset  of  the  Celtic  clans,  but  the  latter 
gained  the  victory  only  with  the  loss  of  their  leader.  It  was 
a  Highland  tradition  that  Dundee  bore  a  charmed  life,  which 
could  not  be  taken  by  bullet  of  lead  or  iron.  A  Lowland 
soldier,  aware  of  this,  tore  a  silver  button  from  his  coat,  and, 
putting  it  into  his  musket,  fired  a  shot,  which  pierced  Dundee 
to  the  heart. 

Notwithstanding  this  victory,  the  cause  of  James  was  lost, 
and,  by  the  end  of  the  year,  all  opposition  in  Scotland  to 
William's  government  seems  to  have  ceased. 

In  the  meanwhile,  the  Roman  Catholics  of  Ireland  were 
loud  in  their  protestations  of  loyalty  to  the  fugitive  King 
James.  The  Irish  peasantry  rose  against  the  hated  English 
and  Protestant  settlers.  In  every  county,  they  burned, 
robbed,  and  pillaged.  No  dwelling  of  an  Englishman  or 
Protestant  was  safe  from  the  attacks  of  the  wild  Irish  Rappa- 
rees :  in  one  mansion,  which  had  contained  three  thousand 
pounds  worth  of  plate,  not  even  a  single  silver  spoon  was  left. 
The  cattle,  of  which  the  English  owned  large  herds,  were 
stolen  and  butchered  with  savage  cruelty.  Many  of  the  most 
beautiful  districts  of  Ireland  appeared  as  though  war,  pesti- 
lence, and  famine  had  successively  passed  over  them.  Large 
numbers  of  the  English  fled  across  the  Channel,  and  but  two 
strongholds  in  the  province  of  Ulster,  Enniskillen  and  Lon- 
donderry, remained  to  theni. 


WILLIAM    III.  291 

In  March,  James,  having  received  assistance  from  the 
French  monarch,  landed  in  Ireland.  On  leaving  the  court 
of  France,  Louis  XIV.  bade  him  farewell,  saying :  "  The  best 
wish  I  can  give  you  is,  that  I  may  never  see  you  again." 
James  was  received  in  Ireland  with  enthusiasm;  was  wel- 
comed with  Te  Deums  in  Dublin,  and  proceeded  forthwith  to 
attempt  the  recovery  of  Ulster.  In  the  previous  year,  twelve 
hundred  men  had  appeared  before  the  gates  of  Londonderry, 
and  demanded  admittance.  Nine  Protestant  youths  rushed 
out  of  the  city,  raised  the  drawbridge,  and  shut  the  gates  in 
the  very  face  of  the  army  of  King  James.  Ammunition  was 
collected,  the  walls  manned,  and  '^  there,  at  length,  on  the 
verge  of  the  ocean,  hunted  to  the  last  asylum,  and  baited  in  a 
mood  in  which  men  may  be  destroyed,  but  will  not  easily  be 
subjugated,  the  imperial  race  turned  desperately  to  bay."* 

Finding  their  governor.  Colonel  Lundy,  in  correspondence 
with  the  enemy,  they  drove  him  from  the  town,  and  this 
memorable  defence  was  conducted  by  the  wise  and  spirited 
counsels  of  a  Presbyterian  minister,  named  Walker.  James 
appeared  in  person  before  Londonderry,  but  departed  at  the 
end  of  a  few  days,  leaving  the  command  in  the  hands  of 
General  Rosen,  who  prosecuted  the  siege  with  merciless  seve- 
rity. When  it  had  lasted  nearly  two  months,  English  ships 
appeared  in  the  harbor  of  Lough  Foyle,  but  more  than  six 
weeks  passed  before  they  could  surmount  the  obstructions  in 
the  bay,  and  effect  a  landing. 

At  length,  at  sunset  on  the  30th  of  July,*three  vessels  were 
descried  approaching  the  town.  The  great  boom,  which  had 
80  long  hindered  their  coming,  had  been  destroyed,  and,  by 
ten  o'clock,  the  famine-stricken  defenders  of  Londonderry 
welcomed  their  deliverers.  The  population  had  been  reduced 
from  seven  thousand  to  three  thousand,  during  this  fearful 
siege,  and  lean  and  ghastly  were  the  figures  of  the  remnant 
which  famine  had  spared,  to  witness  the  delivery  of  the 
devoted  city. 

*  Macaulay. 


292  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

On  the  same  day  with  the  relief  of  Londonderry,  the 
Protestants  of  Enniskillen  had  sallied  from  the  town,  and 
meeting  a  detachment  of  James'  army  at  Newton  Butler, 
had  defeated  them,  with  a  loss  to  the  latter  of  twenty-five 
hundred  men. 

William  sent  an  army,  under  the  Baron  Schomberg,  into 
Ireland,  and,  in  June,  1690,  he  went  thither  himself.  He 
landed  at  Carrickfergus,  and,  advancing  towards  Dublin,  met 
James  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Boyne.  On  the  30th  of 
June,  the  armies  lay  encamped  on  opposite  sides  of  the  river, 
near  the  spot  where  now  stands  Slane  Castle.  On  the  morning 
of  this  day,  as  William  rode  along  his  hues,  a  ball,  fired  by 
the  enemy,  slightly  grazed  his  shoulder.  He  stooped  in  his 
saddle  for  a  moment,  and  this  action  gave  the  impression,  in 
the  army  of  King  James,  that  he  was  killed.  The  news  was 
immediately  sent  to  Dublin,  thence  to  Paris,  and  from  Paris 
to  Rome. 

On  the  1st  of  July,  William,  with  his  Dutch  and  English 
army,  dashed  across  the  river  in  the  face  of  the  enemy. 
James  fled  towards  Dublin  soon  after  the  conflict  began,  and 
his  Irish  troops,  although  fighting  bravely,  were  beaten  in 
every  quarter.  Louis  XIV.  saw  again  the  face  of  the  fugitive 
English  king.  The  brave  veteran.  Baron  Schomberg,  and 
the  Presbyterian  minister  who  had  defended  Londonderry, 
perished  in  this  battle.  Walker's  late  career  had  given  him 
Buch  a  taste  for  war,  that,  although  created  bishop  of  Derry, 
he  preferred  remaining  in  the  army  to  returning  to  the  duties 
of  his  sacred  ofl&ce.  When  it  was  told  the  king  that  the 
bishop  of  Derry  had  been  killed  by  a  shot  at  the  ford, 
William  laconically  replied :  "What  business  had  the  minister 
there?" 

On  the  6th  July,  William  returned  thanks  in  the  cathedral 
church  at  Dublin  for  the  victory  of  the  Boyne.  Other  im- 
portant towns  soon  surrendered,  but  Limerick,  defended  by 
native  Irish,  held  out  so  bravely  that  the  king  was  compelled 
to  raise  the  siege.  In  September,  he  went  back  to  England. 
In   the   following  year,  Limerick   surrendered   to  AVilliam's 


WILLIAM   III.  293 

erenerals,  and  was  admitted  to  honorable  terms.     The 

1691* 

king  endeavored,  as  much  as  possible,  to  check  the 
spirit  of  retaliation,  to  secure  to  the  Irish  the  exercise  of 
their  religion,  and  to  prevent  the  indiscriminate  confiscation 
of  their  property. 

Questions. — What  followed  the  flight  of  the  king? — What  im- 
portant suggestion  was  made  in  the  convention  ? — How  was  this 
idea  carried  out? — What  did  England  become  in  this  reign? — On 
what  terms  only  did  William  consent  to  assume  the  crown  ? — De- 
scribe the  conduct  of  a  portion  of  the  clergy. — What  in  consequence 
became  their  position  ? — Mention  the  course  adopted  with  regard  to 
the  king's  revenue. — Describe  William's  disposition  towards  the 
religious  parties  in  the  kingdom. — Who  were  excluded  from  the  bill 
of  toleration  ? 

Describe  the  party  which  still  held  for  James  in  Scotland. — Give 
an  account  of  the  battle  of  Killiecrankie. — Relate  the  anecdote  of 
Dundee. — Which  cause  finally  triumphed? — Describe  the  position 
of  the  Protestant  population  in  Ireland  at  this  time. — What  strong- 
holds alone  remained  to  them? — By  what  means  was  James  II. 
enabled  to  invade  Ireland  ? — How  was  he  received  there  ? — Give 
some  particulars  of  the  defence  and  siege. — Eelate  the  final  suc- 
cess.— Describe  William's  operations  in  Ireland. — Give  an  account 
of  the  battle  of  the  Boyne. — What  followed  the  victory  ? — What  i3 
related  of  the  siege  of  Limerick  ? — What  disposition  was  shown  by 
the  king  on  the  occasion  of  its  surrender  ? 


CHAPTER  L. 

THE  LAST  TEN  YEARS  OF  THE  REIGN  OF  WILLIAM  III. 

GLENCOE — FOREIGN    WARS — DRATH    OP    QUEEN    MARY — HER    CHARACTER 

WILLIAM  ABROAD — ACT  OP  SUCCESSION — LOUJS  XIV. — WILLIAM'S  DEATH. 

In  the  year  1692,  an  event  occurred  in   Scotland,  which 

proves  that  traces  of  barbarism  were  yet  to  be  found  amid  the 

light  and  civilization  of  the  seventeenth  century.     After  the 

battle  of  Killiecrankie,  there  was  no  formidable  opposition  to 

26* 


294  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

the  new  government  in  Scotland,  although  a  few  Highland 
clans  still  held  out. 

A  proclamation  was  made,  offering  pardon  to  all  who  before 

a  certain  day  should  take  the  oath  of  allegiance.     One 
169*3.'  ^^^^  chieftain,  Macdonald  of  Glencoe,  held  out  for  a 

long  time,  but  at  last  repaired  to  Fort  William,  to 
make  his  submission.  There  was  no  officer  at  that  po'st,  com- 
petent to  administer  the  oath,  and  when  the  old  chieftain, 
after  a  toilsome  winter's  journey,  reached  Inverary,  the  last 
day  appointed  for  the  reception  of  the  oath  had  passed.  He 
was  allowed  to  take  it,  however,  and,  trusting  in  this  security, 
Macdonald  returned  to  his  wild  Highland  valley  near  the 
banks  of  Loch  Lomond,  and  to  the  midst  of  his  devoted 
clansmen. 

"Meanwhile,  Lord  Breadalbane,  Argyle,  and  other  personal 
enemies  of. Glencoe,  by  a  false  statement,  obtained  from  King 
William  permission  to  exterminate  this  Highland  clan,  as  a 
band  of  thieves  and  rebels.  In  February,  a  party  of  Argyle's 
soldiers  visited  the  glen,  and  were  received  with  unsuspecting 
hospitality.  For  twelve  days  they  ate  the  food  and  slept  in 
the  cottages  of  the  clansmen  of  Glencoe.  Ere  day-dawn  on 
the  morning  of  the  thirteenth  day,  the  rocks  and  streams  of 
the  mountain  valley  were  stained  with  the  blood  of  the  unsus- 
pecting hosts.  Many  were  murdered  in  sleep,  others  fled, 
but  were  buried  beneath  snow-drifts,  or  died  of  starvation. 
Rightly  was  the  spot  named  Glencoe,  'Hhe  glen  of  weeping." 
W^illiam,  throughout  his  life,  maintained  a  warm  affection 
for  his  native  country,  and  a  watchful  care  over  its  interests. 
1690     These  interests,  as  well   as  those  of  England,  and 

every   country  in  Europe,  were  threatened  by  the 

ambition  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  To  check  the 
power  of  this  monarch,  a  league  was  formed  against  him  by 
England,  Holland,  Germany,  Austria,  and  Spain,  at  the  head 
of  which  was  placed  AVilliam  of  Orange.  The  pursuance  of 
this  life-long  design  to  crush  the  power  of  Louis  XIV.  obliged 
the  English  king  to  spend  a  large  portion  of  many  successive 
years  on  the  continent. 


to 
1697. 


WILLIAM   III.  295 

In  1692,  Louis,  taking  advantage  of  William's  absence, 
furnished  James  II.  with  a  fleet  and  army  for  the  invasion  of 
England.  On  the  22d  of  May,  off  Cape  La  Hogue,  a  brilliant 
action  took  place  between  the  English  and  French  fleets. 
On  the  heights  above  La  Hogue,  the  Stuart  king,  with  his 
large  army  of  invasion,  beheld  the  destruction  of  the  ships  by 
the  aid  of  which  he  had  hoped  to  recover  his  throne.  The 
fallen  monarch  watched  the  action  with  intense  interest.  For 
one  moment  his  natural  pride  in  the  navy  of  England  made 
him  forget  how  fatal  now  was  its  prowess,  and  he  exclaimed : 
*' See  my  brave  English  sailors!"  It  was  but  a  momentary 
exultation.  Shortly  after,  he  beheld  the  utter  destruction 
of  the  French  fleet,  and  sadly  exclaiming,  "  Heaven  fights 
against  me,''  he  returned  to  the  court  of  the  French  king. 

In  1694,  shortly  after  )Villiam's  return  from  a  successful 
campaign  on  the  continent,  he  met  with  a  severe  affliction  in 
the  death  of  his  queen,  to  whom  he  was  tenderly  attached. 
Mary's  character  was  very  lovely.  Her  charities  were  warm 
and  liberal,  and  she  had  a  great  aversion  to  calumny  and  evil 
speaking.  In  remarking  that  the  most  violent  enemies  of  the 
government  had  never  spoken  of  her  with  harshness,  she  said : 
''  God  knew  where  her  weakness  lay.  She  was  too  sensitive 
to  abuse  and  calumny ;  He  had  mercifully  spared  her  a  trial 
which  was  beyond  her  strength ;  and  £he  best  return  which 
she  could  make  to  Him,  was  to  discountenance  all  malicious 
reflections  on  the  character  of  others." 

Mary  had  a  very  effective  yet  graceful  way  of  doing  this. 
Often  she  would  quietly  ask  the  tattler,  who  was  about  to  open 
her  budget  of  news,  concerning  elopements,  duels,  &c.,  &c., 
whether  she  had  ever  read  her  favorite  sermon.  Dr.  Tillotson's 
on  Evil  Speaking. 

In  the  year  1697,  France,  exhausted  by  long  years  of 
expensive  warfare,  consented  to  terms  of  peace.  In  Septem- 
ber, the  treaty  of  Ryswick  was  signed,  by  which  Louis  XIV. 
acknowledged  the  Prince  of  Orange  as  king  of  England,  and 
promised  to  abandon  the  cause  of  the  house  of  Stuart. 

Whilst  in  Holland,  William  met  with  one,  his  equal  in 


296  HISTORY   OP   ENGLAND. 

wisdom,  who  was  destined  to  become  the  founder  of  a  mighty 
empire.  This  was  Peter  the  G-reat  of  Russia.  The  English 
king  found  him,  not  surrounded  by  the  pomp  of  a  great 
sovereign,  but  in  the  humble  guise  of  a  ship-carpenter,  work- 
ing in  the  dockyards  of  Holland ;  his  mind  eagerly  grasping 
those  improvements  which,  applied  by  his  genius,  were  to 
raise  his  barbarous  country  to  a  high  and  powerful  rank 
among  the  nations  of  the  earth.  The  Czar  visited  England, 
and  was  well  received  by  William. 

In  the  year  1701,  parliament  passed  an  Act  of  Succession, 
by  which  the  crown  of  England  was  secured  to  the  Princess 
Anne  (Queen  Mary's  sister),  and  to  her  descendants.  Should 
she  die,  leaving  no  children,  it  was  to  go  to  the  Protestant 
Electress  Sophia,  and  her  descendants.  This  lady  was  a 
granddaughter  of  James  I.,  being  the  child  of  his  daughter 
Elizabeth,  who  had  married  the  Elector  Palatine.  The 
Stuarts  were  all  excluded. 

In  the  same  year  died  at  the  palace  of  St.  Germains,  King 

James  II.     Louis  XIV.,  notwithstanding  the  treaty  of  Rys- 

wick,  immediately  proclaimed  the  deceased  monarch's  eldest 

son   king  of  England,  by  the   title  of  James  III. 

1701.  o  »  J       J 

Louis's  ambition  moreover  led  him  to  place  his  grand- 
son on  the  throne  of  Spain.  These  events  induced  another 
formidable  alliance  of  the  nations  of  Europe,  against  the 
schemes  of  the  aspiring  monarch. 

But  King  William,  the  soul  of  the  alliance,  was  not  per- 
mitted to  take  an  active  part  in  it.  .  In  early  manhood  he  had 
had  a  severe  attack  of  small-pox.  This  disease  had  under- 
mined his  constitution,  and  the  subsequent  years  of  his  life 
were  marked  by  painful  suffering.  This  consideration  greatly 
enhances  the  untiring  activity  and  fidelity  displayed  by  this 
monarch  in  the  discharge  of  his  great  and  varied  responsibili- 
ties. A  fall  from  his  horse,  in  February  of  1702,  caused  an 
inflammation  of  the  lungs,  which  hastened  his  death.  One 
of  his  last  acts  was  a  message  urging  his  parliament  to  take 
measures  for  the  union  of  England  and  Scotland.  A  few  days 
later,  Lord  Albemarle  arrived  with  good  news  from  Holland, 


ENGLAND    DURING   THE    SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY.     297 

but  the  interests  of  this  world  were  no  longer  uppermost  in 
the  mind  of  the  king.  "  I  draw  near  my  end,"  were  the 
words  he  addressed  to  the  nobleman;  and  at  eight  o'clock  the 
following  morning,  Sunday,  8th  of  March,  1702,  he  breathed 
his  last. 

Questions. — Relate  the  history  of  the  massacre  of  Glencoe. — 
Mention  the  circumstances  which  led  William  to  engage  in  foreign 
wars. — Give  an  account  of  the  battle  of  La  Hogue. — What  domestic 
affliction  befell  William  in  1694? — Relate  the  account  given  of  the 
character  of  the  queen, — Describe  the  way  in  which  she  was  wont  to 
rebuke  evil  speaking. 

Mention  the  treaty  concluded  in  1697. — What  were  the  terms  of 
it  ? — Repeat  what  is  told  of  Peter  the  Great. — Describe  the  act  of 
parliament  passed  in  1701. — When  and  where  did  James  II.  die  ? — 
What  was  the  conduct  of  the  French  king  on  this  occasion? — 
Describe  the  suffering  experienced  by  the  king  from  ill  health. — 
What  was  his  last  public  act? — Mention  his  interview  with  ono 
of  his  courtiers. — When  did  he  die  ? 


CHAPTER  LI. 

CONDITION    OF   ENGLAND   DURING    THE    SEVENTEENTH   CEN- 
TURY. 

RELIGION — THE  DRAMA — POETS— MILTON— SClEyCE— ROYAL  OBSERVATORY 
— GREENWICH  HOSPITAL — ART — ARCHITECTURE  —  NEWSPAPERS  —  POST- 
OFFICES. 

One  of  the  most  important  events  in  the  history  of  religion, 
during  this  century,  was  the  translation  of  the  present  standard 
edition  of  the  English  Bible.  In  the  year  1606,  by  the  order 
of  King  James  I.,  forty-seven  of  the  most  learned  divines  of 
the  universities  assembled  at  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  West- 
minster, for  this  great  work.  They  were  separated  into  six 
divisions  or  companies,  and  a  certain  portion  of  Scripture 
jriven  to  each.     Each  member  of  a  division  translated  tho 

o 

assigned  portion,  and  when  all  had  finished,  they  met,  to  read 


298  HISTORY   OF  ENGLAND. 

and  compare  their  translations,  and  decide  upon  the  best. 
When  all  the  divisions  had  finished  their  separate  portions, 
the  whole  forty-seven  assembled.  Then  the  entire  new  ver- 
sion was  read.  Each  disputed  point  was  discussed,  and  no 
portion  adopted  until  the  combined  wisdom  of  these  learned 
and  good  men  had  consented  to  it.  Thus,  in  God's  good 
Providence,  was  given,  both  in  the  single-minded  sincerity 
and  in  the  learning  and  piety  of  the  translators,  the  best 
security  we  could  ask,  for  the  correct  translation  of  His  Holy 
Word. 

Those  Protestants,  who,  refusing  conformity  to  the  church 
of  England,  had  hitherto  been  generally  known  as  Puritans, 
became,  in  the  course  of  this  centui^,  established  in  distinct 
societies,  under  various  denominations.  There  were  Presby- 
terians, Independents,  Baptists,  and  Quakers  or  Friends. 
These  sects  differed  as  much  from  each  other  as  they  all  did 
from  the  church  of  England  The  Independents  alone  held 
the  doctrine  of  toleration,  and  during  Cromwell's  administra- 
tion there  was  perhaps  less  persecution  than  at  any  other 
period  in  the  century. 

When  the  Long  Parliament  triumphed,  an  assembly  of 
Presbyterian  divines  met  at  Westminster,  and  there  prepared 
a  Confession  of  Faith,  a  Directory  for  Public  Worship,  and 
the  Longer  and  Shorter  Catechism,  still  in  use  among  that 
denomination  of  Christians.  During  the  ascendency  of  this 
parliament,  many  of  the  clergy  of  the  church  of  England 
were  turned  out  of  their  livings,  and  suffered  more  or  less 
(severe  persecutions. 

Jei-emy  Tiiylor,  being  driven  from  his  living  in  Uppingham, 
withdrew  to  a  mountain  district  of  Wales,  and  supported  him- 
self by  teaching,  whilst  writing  "  Holy  Living"  and  other 
works,  which  have  proved  valuable  contributions  to  sacred 
literature.  The  learned  Archbishop  Usher,  although  tolerant 
in  his  own  views,  was  among  those  who  suffered  at  this  time. 
Nor  were  these  persecutions  confined  to  members  of  the 
church  of  England. 

It  was  during  the  triumph  of  the  Long  Parliament,  that 


ENGLAND   DURING   THE    SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.     299 

the  Independent  (afterwards  the  Baptist)  Roger  Williams  fled 
from  his  own  country,  to  found  a  non-persecuting  church  in 
the  wilds  of  America.  He  learned,  alas !  that  the  spirit  of 
intolerance  reigned  in  New  England  as  triumphantly  as  in 
the  mother  country.  Driven  from  Massachusetts  by  the 
same  causes  which  had  induced  him  to  leave  England,  he 
fled  to  Rhode  Island,  and  there  founded  a  religious  society,  in 
which  was  preached  and  practised  the  new  doctrine,  that  men 
should  not  be  persecuted  for  any  religious  belief. 

At  the  Restoration,  when  the  English  church  was  again 
established,  the  dissenters  in  their  turn  sufi"ered  the  loss  of 
houses  and  lands.  About  two  thousand  ministers  of  religion 
were  driven  from  their  livings,  or  resigned  them,  rather  than 
comply  with  the  Act  of  Uniformity. 

The  last  burning  of  heretics  in  England  took  place  in  the 
year  1612,  shortly  after  which  a  law  was  passed,  abolishing 
the  cruel  practice.  But  though  heretics  no  longer  suffered 
this  dreadful  death,  the  faggot  was  again  lighted  for  the 
burning  of  witches. 

For  several  years  the  belief  in  witchcraft  spread  over 
Europe,  and  many  innocent  men,  women,  and  children,  suf- 
fered at  the  stake,  on  the  charge  of  being  in  league  with  the 
evil  one.  Between  the  years  1640  and  1660,  some  three  or 
four  thousand  victims  in  Europe  fell  a  sacrifice  to  this  terrible 
delusion. 

Meanwhile,  the  spirit  of  persecution  '^had  driven  thousands 
of  those  honest,  diligent,  and  God-fearing  yeomen,  who  are 
the  strength  of  a  nation,  to  seek  a  refuge  beyond  the  ocean, 
among  the  wigwams  of  red  Indians  and  the  lairs  of  panthers."* 
In  America  was  found  "  ample  room  and  verge  enough"  for 
the  persecuted  of  every  creed.  To  the  churchman,  the  cava- 
lier, and  the  courtier,  Virginia  opened  its  loyal  arms.  To  the 
hunted  Covenanter  and  Cameronian,  the  Jerseys  off'ered  a 
secure  and  happy  shelter.  The  peace-loving  Quaker  founded 
amid  the  forests  of  Pennsylvania,  his  city  of  brotherly  love, 

*  Macaulay. 


300  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

while  New  England  received  the  comers  of  every  sect,  who 
found  at  least  one  home  of  toleration  on  the  shores  of  Narra- 
gansett  Bay.  Another  was  provided  before  the  century  closed. 
The  noble-minded  Koman  Catholic,  Lord  Baltimore,  founded 
on  Chesapeake  Bay  a  colony  which  grew  and  flourished  under 
the  kindly  influences  of  liberty  of  conscience. 

Early  in  the  seventeenth  century  the  old  miracle  plays  and 
allegories  began  to  give  place  to  the  more  natural  and  finished 
performances  of  the  drama.  There  were  many  writers  of  plays, 
but  the  master  mind  of  Shakspeare  has  shed  a  glory  over  this 
and  every  age,  in  the  splendor  of  which,  the  writings  of  lesser 
dramatists  are  quite  forgotten.  Shakspeare  was  born  at  Strat- 
ford on  the  Avon,  in  the  year  1564.  At  an  early  age  he 
married  Ann  Hathaway,  a  farmer's  daughter,  and  went  to 
London,  where  he  became  the  partial  proprietor  of  the  Globe 
and  Blackfriars  Theatres.  He  wrote  the  greater  number  of 
his  plays  during  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  James  I.  The 
closing  years  of  his  life  were  passed  in  New  Place,  at  Strat- 
ford, the  home  of  his  childhood.  He  died  in  1616,  two  years 
before  the  birth  of  Milton,  and  was  buried  in  the  parish 
church  of  his  native  town. 

As  in  the  early  part  of  this  century  the  cotemporary  drama- 
tists of  Shakspeare — Ben  Jonson,  Beaumont,  Fletcher,  &c. — 
although  writers  of  no  mean  merit,  are  eclipsed  by  the  supe- 
riority of  their  great  master,  so  in  the  middle  and  close  of  the 
century,  the  fame  of  the  poets  Waller,  Cowley,  Dryden,  Her- 
bert, Marvell,  and  others,  is  lost  in  that  of  the  author  of 
*'  Paradise  Lost" — the  Puritan  poet,  John  Milton.  The  poem 
which  has  rendered  his  name  immortal  was  given  to  the  world 
when  he  was  old  and  blind. 

Nor  must  we  omit  another  priceless  legacy,  which  the 
seventeenth  century  bequeathed  to  the  hearts  and  minds  of 
succeeding  generations.  "  The  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  written 
by  John  Bunyan,  the  poor  tinker  of  Bedford,  when  he  lay, 
"  persecuted  for  conscience'  sake,"  a  prisoner  in  Bedford  gaol. 
The  writings  of  Jeremy  Taylor,  the  quaint  Fuller,  Archbishop 
Leighton,  Bishops  Burnett,  Stillingfleet,  Tillotson,  and  South, 


ENGLAND    DURING    THE    SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.     301 

and  the  Presbyterians  Baxter  and  Howe,  rank  high  among 
the  valuable  contributions  to  sacred  and  secular  literature 
which  the  seventeenth  century  produced.  One  of  the  poets- 
laureate  in  the  reign  of  King  William,  was  Tate,  the  author 
of  the  well-known  Christmas  hymn  : 

"  While  shepherds  watched  their  flocks  by  night.*' 

King  Charles  II.  founded  the  Royal  Society  for  the  pro- 
motion of  science.  To  this  noble  institution,  which  brought 
together  the  learned  and  scientific  men  from  all  parts  of  the 
kingdom,  is  owing  the  great  progress  made  in  science  at  the 
close  of  this,  and  during  the  succeeding  period.  In  1619, 
Dr.  William  Harvey  published  his  discovery  of  the  circulation 
of  the  blood  through  the  arteries  and  veins  of  the  human 
body.  So  general  was  the  ignorance  of  physiology  at  this 
time,  that  the  discovery  was  ridiculed  even  by  men  of  intelli- 
gence, and  it  is  said  that  when  first  published  it  was  received 
by  scarcely  one  "  medical  man  who  had  passed  his  fortieth 
year.^' 

The  grand  discoveries  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton  gave  a  new 
impulse  to  science.  The  study  of  the  stars  was  facilitated 
by  the  improvements  in  telescopes ;  the  vagaries  and  dreams 
of  astrology  were  rapidly  displaced,  and  the  heavens  made  to 
"declare  the  glory  of  G-od,''  by  the  wonderful  and  brilliant 
discoveries  in  the  noble  science  of  astronomy.  For  the  pro- 
motion of  this  science,  and  that  of  navigation,  Charles  II. 
founded,  at  Greenwich,  in  1676,  the  *Eoyal  Observatory. 
The  first  astronomers  royal,  John  Flamsteed  and  Fidmund 
Halley,  who  held  the  office  successively,  from  1676  to  1742, 
are  distinguished  for  their  valuable  contributions  to  the  cause 
of  science.  During  the  erection  of  the  observatory,  Halley, 
in  the  distant  island  of  St.  Helena,  was  engaged  in  mapping 
the  constellations  of  the  southern  hemisphere.  He  was  the 
first  astronomer  to  predict  the  return  of  a  comet.  He  saw 
the  one  since  known  by  his  name,  whilst  at  Paris,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1680.  He  calculated  its  reappearance  in  the  years  1758 
and  1835,  which  actually  occurred. 
26 


302  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

;At  Greenwich,  Charles  II.  had  commenced  the  building 
of  a  beautiful  palace,  surrounded  by  terraced  grounds,  and 
ornamented  with  shade  trees.  After  the  battle  of  La  Hogue, 
Queen  Mary  saw  maimed  and  wounded  sailors  brought  home, 
with  no  fitting  hospital  for  their  reception.  She  formed  the 
noble  design  of  converting  the  palace  of  Greenwich  into  an 
asylum  for  disabled  seamen.  After  her  death,  William  erected 
on  the  spot  which  she  had  chosen,  Greenwich  Hospital,  a 
beautiful  monument  to  the  virtues  of  the  gentle  queen. 

The  Stuart  kings,  especially  Charles  I.  and  II.,  were  patrons 
of  the  fine  arts.  In  their  reigns,  the  great  Dutch  painters, 
Van  Dyke  and  Rubens,  were  invited  into  England.  By  the 
exertions  of  the  latter,  the  celebrated  Cartoons  of  Raphael 
were  purchased  at  Brussels  for  Charles  I.  These  pictures, 
of  which  seven  only  are  preserved,  represent  subjects  taken 
chiefly  from  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  They  are  called 
Cartoons  from  the  name  of  the  material,  a  species  of  paste- 
board, on  which  they  are  painted.  Rubens  came  into  Eng- 
land not  as  an  artist,  but  as  an  ambassador  from  the  king  of 
Spain.  He  left  behind  him,  on  the  beautiful  ceiling  of  the 
banqueting  house  at  Whitehall,  a  noble  specimen  of  his 
genius  as  a  painter. 

In  many  of  the  palaces,  and  some  of  the  churches  of  Eng- 
land, are  to  be  found  exquisite  wood  carvings,  the  work  of 
Grinling  Gibbons,  a  celebrated  sculptor,  who  wrought  birds, 
fruits,  and  flowers,  in  wood,  with  a  delicacy  and  perfection 
that  almost  equals  tlie  productions  of  nature. 

Many  galleries  of  art  contained  not  only  fine  paintings,  but 
collections  of  gems  and  antiquities.  In  the  gallery  of  the 
Earl  of  Arundel  were  placed  the  statues,  busts,  gems,  and 
monuments  brought  from  Greece  by  that  nobleman  in  1610, 
and  generally  known  as  the  Arundelian  Marbles. 

In  the  early  part  of  this  period  flourished  Inigo  Jones,  who 
introduced  the  Italian  style  of  architecture  into  England. 
He  built  the  beautiful  banqueting  house  at  Whitehall  But 
the  most  famous  architect  of  this  age  was  Sir  Christopher 
Wren.     After  the  great  fire  which  in  the  year  1666  laid  in 


ENGLAND   DURING   THE   SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.    308 

ruins  two-thirds  of  the  city  of  London,  the  geuius  of  Wren 
was  employed  in  the  work  of  restoration.  His  greatest  monu- 
ment is  the  magnificent  cathedral  of  St.  Paul's,  which  he 
rebuilt  from  its  foundation,  accomplishing  the  work  in  thirty- 
five  years.  In  London  alone,  fifty-one  churches  were  erected 
from  his  designs.  Among  these,  St.  Stephen's,  Walbrook, 
said  to  be  a  beautiful  copy  in  miniature  of  St.  Peter's  at 
Kome,  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  graceful  proportions 
and  exquisite  finish.  The  Koyal  Hospitals  at  Greenwich  and 
Chelsea,  the  Sheldonian  Theatre,  Oxford,  and  numerous  other 
works,  remain  noble  and  enduring  monuments  of  the  genius 
of  the  great  architect. 

The  national  anthem,  "God  save  the  King,"  was  composed, 
and  first  sung  in  the  reign  of  James  II. 

The  first  English  newspaper  was  printed  during  the  session 
of  the  Long  Parliament,  in  the  year  1641.  It  was  entitled 
"■  The  Diurnal  Occurrences  or  Daily  Proceedings  of  Both 
Houses  in  this  Great  and  Happy  Parliament,  from  the  3d 
November,  1640,  to  the  3d  of  November,  1641."  Between 
this  date  and  that  of  1695,  there  were  a  number  of  news- 
letters printed,  but  after  the  Restoration  so  many  restraints 
were  put  upon  the  liberty  of  the  press,  that  there  could  be 
but  few  free  and  independent  publications.  On  the  3d  of 
May,  in  the  year  1695,  these  restraints  were  removed.  The 
law  which  had  been  made  for  the  censorship  of  the  press 
expired  at  that  date,  and  was  not  renewed.  No  sooner  was 
the  press  rendered  free  by  this  circumstance,  than  there 
followed  the  publication  of  a  host  of  newspapers.  There 
was  "  The  Packet  Boat  from  Holland  and  Flanders,"  "  The 
Pegasus,"  "The  Flying  Post,"  "The  Old  Postmaster," 
"The  Postboy,"  and  "The  Postman."  They  were  printed 
on  coarse  and  dingy  paper,  and  were  so  small  that  the  entire 
sheet  would  not  contain  as  much  reading-matter  as  is  now 
to  be  found  in  a  single  column  of  one  of  the  larger  daily 
newspapers. 

The  first  regular  post-office  was  established  in  1635,  for 


304  HISTORY   OF  ENGLAND. 

the  more  speedy  transmission  of  news  between  England  and 
Scotland. 

Questions. — Name  the  most  important  event  connected  with  the 
history  of  religion  in  this  century. — Describe  the  plan  on  which  the 
work  was  accomplished. — Mention  the  names  of  the  various  classes 
of  dissenters  existing  at  this  time. — What  is  remarked  of  the  Inde- 
pendents ? — Describe  the  acts  of  the  Westminster  Assembly. — What 
portion  of  the  nation  suliered  during  the  power  of  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment?— Give  the  account  of  Roger  Williams. — Describe  the  condi- 
tion of  dissenters  after  the  Restoration. — Give  some  account  of  the 
burnings  for  witchcraft  in  this  century. — Mention  the  colonies  in 
America  to  which  the  various  classes  of  the  persecuted  fled. 

Relate  the  account  given  of  Shakspeare. — Name  some  of  the  poets 
of  this  age. — Under  what  circumstances  was  Milton's  most  cele- 
brated poem  written? — What  other  distinguished  woi'k  was  the  pro- 
duction of  this  century? — Name  other  authors  of  this  age. — What 
institution  was  founded  by  Charles  II.? — What  benefits  did  this 
foundation  confer  on  science? — What  discovery  was  made  by  Hai'vey 
in  1619  ? — What  improvements  took  place  in  astronomy  at  this 
time? — Where,  by  whom,  and  for  what  purpose,  was  the  Royal 
Observatory  founded? — Name  the  first  astronomers  royal. — Relate 
the  circumstances  connected  with  the  founding  of  Greenwich  Hos- 
pital. 

Name  some  celebrated  painters  who  flourished  in  this  age. — 
Describe  the  Cartoons. — What  work  of  Rubens's  art  remains? — 
Describe  the  work  of  Gibbons  the  sculptor  — Name  the  collections 
of  antiquities  made  during  this  period. — In  what  work  was  Wren 
employed  ? — What  mention  is  made  of  him  in  connection  with  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral? — When  was  the  national  anthem  composed? — 
Mention  the  first  English  newspaper. — Why  could  not  newspapers 
be  independent? — When  were  these  restrictions  removed? — Describe 
the  papers  of  that  day. — When  was  the  first  post-office  established? 


ENGLAND   DURING   THE    SEVENTEENTH   CENTURY.     305 


CHAPTER  LII. 

CONDITION   OP   ENGLAND   DURING    THE   SEVENTEENTH   CEN- 
TURY. 

ROADS — CONDITION  OF  LONDON — COMMERCE — MANUFACTURES — BANK  OP 
ENGLAND — STYLE  OF  LIVING — CLASSES  OF  SOCIETY — REVENUE — WHIG 
AND    TORY — NATIONAL    DEBT. 

In  1663,  turnpikes  or  toll-gates  were  first  erected,  and  some 
regard  was  paid  to  the  improvement  of  the  highways,  which, 
however,  continued  to  a  much  later  period  in  a  wretched 
condition.  In  many  districts  six  horses  were  not  sufficient  to 
drag  the  family  coach  out  of  the  sloughs  and  quagmires, 
which  abounded  in  the  king's  highway.  Bold  highwaymen 
and  daring  robbers  added  to  the  perils  of  the  traveller. 
Journeys  were  chiefly  made  on  horseback,  as  the  public 
conveyances  were  few,  and  subjected  the  traveller  to  much 
inconvenience.  In  1669,  a  wonderful  vehicle,  described  as 
"  The  Flying  Coach,"  performed  the  entire  journey  between 
Oxford  and  London  (fifty-two  miles)  in  a  single  day.  The 
success  of  this  experiment  gave  rise  to  the  establishment 
of  numerous  lines  of  stage-coaches. 

The  streets  of  the  capital  were  in  a  sad  condition  :  they 
were  unpaved,  narrow,  and  dirty,  and  one  writer  complains 
not  only  of  the  "  ill  and  uneasy  form  of  paving  underfoot," 
but  also  of  the  "  troublesome  and  malicious  disposure  of  the 
spouts  and  gutters  overhead."  The  streets  moreover  were 
frequented  by  daring  cut-purses,  and  the  scene  of  constant 
fights  among  the  apprentices.  Coaches,  wagons,  and  sedan 
chairs  jostled  each  other,  and  the  ear  was  stunned  by  the  loud 
variety  of  cries  uttered  by  the  venders  of  every  kind  of  ware. 
The  importunate  seller,  walking  before  his  shop-door,  cried : 
"  What  d'ye  lack,  madam?"  ''  What  d'ye  lack,  sir?"  to  every 
passer-by,  telling  over  at  the  same  time,  as  loud  and  fast  as 
possible,  a  list  of  all  the  commodities  in  which  he  dealt. 
26*  U 


306  HISTORY  OP  ENGLAND. 

Such  was  shopping  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Large 
painted  signs,  projecting  into  the  streets,  gave  a  gay  appear- 
ance to  the  shops.  There  were  ''  Saracen's  Heads,"  "  Red 
Lions/'  "Golden  Lambs,"  "  Hogs  in  Armor,"  "  Swans  with 
two  Necks,"  "  Spread  Eagles,"  and  others  of  the  most  gro- 
tesque character. 

At  night  the  streets  of  London  were  more  dangerous  than 
by  day,  for  they  were  unlighted  for  the  most  part,  save  by  the 
torches,  links,  or  lanterns  which  were  carried  by  the  few  foot- 
passengers  who  ventured  to  thread  their  dark  and  narrow 
intricacies.  In  1662,  an  act  was  passed  obliging  householders 
to  hang  out  some  description  of  light  on  the  side  of  the  house 
next  the  street,  every  night  between  Michaelmas  and  Lady 
Day,  from  dark  until  nine  o'clock  in  the  evening.  The 
remainder  of  the  year,  and  the  rest  of  the  night,  the  streets 
were  left  in  darkness.  The  houses  were  chiefly  of  wood,  and 
the  streets  so  dirty,  that  bonfires  were  frequently  lighted,  to 
keep  off  disease.     London  was  better  built  after  the  fire. 

We  have  seen  how  in  the  last  century  voyages  were  made 
to  Lidia  and  the  East.  Early  in  the  present  century  the 
English  merchants  had  established  factories  in  India,  in  the 
islands  of  Sumatra  and  Java,  and  even  in  Japan.  The  East 
India  Company  fitted  out  large  ships,  which  brought  to  Eng- 
land valuable  cargoes.  Tea  and  coffee  were  introduced ;  they 
came,  however,  but  slowly  into  general  use,  and  were  for  a 
long  time  very  expensive  luxuries.  The  East  India  Company 
in  166-1,  wishing  to  present  some  valuable  rarity  to  the  king, 
was  obliged  to  pay  forty  shillings  a  pound  for  some  tea,  and 
even  at  that  price  could  only  get  two  pounds  two  ounces. 

A  gentleman  writing  in  his  diary  under  date  of  September, 
1661,  says :  ''  I  sent  for  a  cup  of  tea  (a  Chinese  drink),  of 
which  I  had  never  drunk  before."  Pepper,  cloves,  ginger, 
and  all  the  East  India  spices  were  now  brought  into  England, 
as  also  calico,  so  called  from  Calicut,  a  town  in  southern 
India,  and  various  other  Indian  manufactures. 

In  some  of  their  quarrels  with  the  Dutch,  who  were  formid- 
able rivals  of  the  English  in  the  East  India  trade,  the  latter 


ENGLAND   DURING    THE    SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY.     307 

lost  the  island  of  Java,  which  has  ever  since  remained  a 
valuable  possession  to  Holland.  In  1651  the  English  gained 
St.  Helena.  A  few  years  previously  they  had  established 
themselves  at  Madras,  which  soon  became  one  of  their  most 
important  possessions  in  India.  In  1669,  the  town  of  Bombay 
was  granted  to  the  East  India  Company  by  King  Charles  II , 
he  having  received  it  as  a  part  of  the  marriage  dower  of 
Queen  Catherine,  who  was  a  princess  of  Portugal. 

The  trade  of  England  in  America,  Turkey,  the  Levant^  and 
elsewhere,  became  so  considerable  in  Charles  II. ^s  reign,  that 
a  "  Council  of  Commerce"  was  appointed  to  take  charge  of  its 
extended  interests.  This  was  the  origin  of  the  Board  of 
Trade.  The  number  of  whalers  visiting  the  shores  of  Green- 
land and  Spitzbergen  increased,  and  whalebone  was  found  to 
be  a  useful  article  of  commerce.  Hitherto  the  whale  had 
been  valued  only  for  its  oil. 

The  plantation  trade,  or  that  carried  on  with  the  colonies  in 
America,  was  daily  growing  more  and  more  important.  Early 
in  the  century,  in  1607,  the  first  permanent  English  colony 
was  founded  at  Jamestown,  in  Virginia.  In  1620,  the  first 
settlement  in  New  England  was  made,  and  before  the  close  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  twelve  of  the  old  thirteen  colonies 
had  been  planted  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  America.  The 
mother  country  was  already  beginning  to  reap  an  annual 
revenue  from  the  productions  raised  in  the  forests  of  the 
New  World,  and  at  the  close  of  the  century,  no  less  than  five 
hundred  vessels  were  employed  in  trade  with  these  colonies 
and  the  West  Indies  Some  of  these  were  engaged  in  the 
traffic  of  slaves. 

Tobacco  became  an  article  of  commerce.  It  takes  its  name 
from  Tabaco,  a  place  in  Yucatan,  whence  it  was  first  brought. 
James  I.  particularly  disliked  this  noxious  weed,  and  wrote  a 
book  against  it,  called  "The  Counterblaste  to  Tobacco.'^  But 
despite  the  king's  book,  and  the  additional  duty  which  he 
caused  to  be  laid  upon  the  hateful  drug,  the  use  of  tobacco 
became  more  and  more  popular  Sir  Walter  Ealeigh  was 
very   fond   of   smoking,    and    introduced    the   custom   into 


308  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

England.  The  first  time  he  indulged  in  this  practice,  his 
servant,  happening  to  enter  the  room  with  a  jug  of  water, 
saw  Sir  Walter  enveloped  in  smoke,  and,  very  naturally, 
supposing  him  to  be  on  fire,  dashed  the  contents  of  the  jug 
over  his  master's  head,  to  save  him,  as  he  believed,  from 
a  terrible  death. 

The  cotton  manufactures  of  England  took  their  rise  in  this 
century.  Manchester  is  spoken  of  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I., 
as  being  engaged  in  this  important  branch  of  industry,  which, 
however,  was  yet  in  its  infancy.  In  1685,  Louis  XIV.  issued 
his  famous  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  This  edict, 
for  more  than  eighty  years,  had  granted  protection  to  the 
Protestants  in  France.  That  protection  was  now  withdrawn, 
and  cruel  dragoons,  riding  into  every  Huguenot  village, 
hunted  the  poor  artisan  or  manufacturer  to  the  death.  Thou- 
sands, fleeing  from  this  persecution  in  their  native  country, 
came  to  England.  Among  them  were  the  silk- weavers,  who 
established  at  Spitalfields,  London,  their  celebrated  and  beau- 
tiful manufacture. 

The  Dutch  and  Flemings  who  came  into  England,  taught 
many  excellent  lessons  of  agriculture.  They  introduced  cauli- 
flowers, cabbages,  turnips,  carrots,  parsnips,  and  pease,  all  of 
which  useful  vegetables  were  brought  from  Holland  in  the 
early  part  of  this  century.  Many  of  the  beautiful  hop-gardens 
of  England  were  planted  by  the  Flemings,  nearly  three  hun- 
dred years  ago. 

The  Bank  of  England  was  established  in  King  William's 
reign.  Its  operations  began  in  Grocers'  Hall,  in  1694.  Then 
fifty-four  persons  were  employed  in  the  transaction  of  its 
business.  Now  its  employees  number  nine  hundred  In 
1695,  all  the  clipped  and  base  money  of  the  kingdom  was 
called  in,  melted  down,  and  a  new  coinage  struck.  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  was  appointed  warden  of  the  mint.  Under  his  direc- 
tion nineteen  mills  were  in  operation  at  the  Tower,  and  soon 
one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  pounds  of  silver  coin  were 
issued  weekly  from  the  mint  The  new  currency,  "  the  finest 
and  most  beautiful  in  all  Europe,"  came  into  circulation   m 


ENGLAND    DURING    TIIK    SEVKNTEENTII    CENTURY.     809 

the  year  1697.  Guineas  had  been  coined  in  Charles  II. 's 
reign;  they  were  so  called  from  the  country  in  Africa  whence 
the  gold  was  brought. 

James  I.  discouraged  the  flocking  of  the  nobles  and  country 
gentlemen  to  court,  and  sent  them  home  to  cultivate  their 
estates.  The  long  retinues  which  had  once  been  essential  to 
the  state  of  a  noble,  were  no  longer  kept  up.  In  the  country- 
houses  of  the  gentry,  great  hospitality  prevailed.  In  the 
spacious  old  hall  of  the  country  squire,  ornamented  with  the 
trophies  of  the  chase,  the  oaken  board  was  spread,  and  bent 
beneath  a  generous  weight  of  roast  beef  and  plum  pudding. 
The  gentry  treated  their  tenants  to  annual  feasts,  and  among 
the  farmers,  sheep-shearings  and  harvest-homes  were  occasions 
of  great  jollity  to  all  their  dependents. 

As  intercourse  with  India  and  the  countries  of  the  Levant 
became  frequent,  articles  of  luxury,  both  in  furniture  and 
dress,  multiplied.  Carpets  continued  to  be  used  rather  as 
table  than  floor  covers ;  on  the  floors,  even  of  palaces,  rushes 
were  still  strewed,  or  at  best  superseded  by  a  covering  of 
matting.  Oil-cloth  was  first  manufactured  in  1660.  The 
extravagance  in  dress  which  prevailed  at  court  during  the 
reigns  of  the  Stuarts,  is  justly  censured  in  a  poem  written  by 
a  Thames  waterman.     He  says  they 

"Wear  a  farm  in  shoe-strings  edged  with  gold, 
And  spangled  garters  worth  a  copyhold ; 
A  hose  and  doublet  which  a  lordship  cost, 
•A  gaudy  cloak,  the  manor's  price  almost; 
A  beaver  band  and  feather  for  the  head, 
Prized  at  the  church's  tithe — the  poor  man's  bread." 

In  King  William's  reign,  monstrous  periwigs  and  cocked 
hats  were  in  vogue  among  the  men,  whilst  the  women  wore 
hair-powder,  high  caps,  stomachers  richly  laced,  and  flowing 
skirts,  looped  back  to  display  the  flounces  and  furbelows  with 
which  the  petticoat  was  adorned.  The  court  dames  and  city 
ladies  of  this  century  cared  far  less  for  the  improvement  of 
the  mind,  than  those  noble  women  whose  learning,  virtues, 


810  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND, 

and  accomplishments  adorned  the  court  and  reign  of  Eliza- 
beth. In  fact,  gross  ignorance  of  the  common  rudiments  of 
education  prevailed  amongst  them.  In  the  library  of  the 
Hague  may  be  seen  an  English  Bible,  presented  to  the 
queen  of  William  III.  on  the  day  of  their  coronation.  In 
Mary's  own  handwriting  on  the  title  page  is  the  following 
inscription:  "This  book  was  given  the  king  and  I  at  our 
crownation,  Marie  R."  Both  the  manners  and  morals  of 
the  court  during  the  reigns  of  Charles  and  James  II.,  were 
exceedingly  profligate.  The  coarsest  and  most  boisterous 
places  of  amusement  were  frequented  by  women,  who  in- 
dulged in  gambling  and  profanity.  There  were  those  of 
both  sexes  who,  amid  general  corruption,  preserved  a  dignity 
and  purity  of  character  and  manners  as  beautiful  as  it  was 
remarkable. 

In  the  time  of  Cromwell,  a  far  greater  degree  of  propriety 
prevailed,  amounting  almost  to  austerity.  Plays,  dances, 
merry-makings,  &c,,  were  all  discountenanced.  Psalm  singing 
and  sermons  were  the  only  recreations.  To  prevent  the  in- 
dulgence of  the  popular  sport  of  bear-baiting,  which  was 
esteemed  especially  cruel  and  sinful,  the  Puritan  protector 
caused  all  the  bears  to  be  killed.  This  gave  rise  to  a 
very  famous  burlesque  poem,  called  "  Hudibras^"  written  by 
Samuel,  Butler,  in  ridicule  of  the  Puritans. 

When,  at  the  Restoration,  the  restrictions,  which  the  as- 
cendancy of  Puritanism  had  laid  upon  the  nation,  were 
removed,  they  plunged  at  once  into  the  greatest  excesses 
of  vice  and  folly.  Every  species  of  amusement  was  restored, 
and  the  horse-races  at  Newmarket  absorbed  large  sums  of 
money.  The  tournament  had  passed  away  with  the  reign  of 
James  I.,  and  we  take  leave  of  armor  in  that  of  his  son  and 
successor.  Swords,  pistols,  and  bayonets  (the  latter  invented 
at  Bayonne,  in  France,  whence  thoir  name)  took  the  place 
of  spears,  battle-axes,  and  cross-bows.  Masques  and  pageants 
lingered  a  few  years  later  than  the  tournament,  but  gradually 
disappeared,  before  the  superiority  of  the  regular  drama. 

The  condition  of  the  people  of  England  during  this  cen- 


ENGLAND    DURING    THE    SKVENTEENTH    CENTURY.     311 

tury,  especially  of  the  lower  classes,  was  greatly  improved. 
The  population  in  1662  was  about  six  millions  and  a  half. 
At  the  time  of  the  Revolution'  it  had  increased  to  seven 
millions.  Many  places,  now  among  the  largest  and  most 
thriving  in  the  kingdom,  were  then  just  rising  into  import- 
ance, as  manufacturing  or  commercial  towns.  Such  were 
Birmingham,  Leeds,  Sheffield,  Plymouth,  Hull,  Liverpool,  &c. 

Henry  VII.  had  allowed  the  large  domains  of  the  nobility 
to  be  subdivided  or  disposed  of  at  their  will.  Henry  VIII. 
had  apportioned  among  his  favorites  the  large  estates  belong- 
ing to  the  church.  Consequently  there  arose  a  class  of  land- 
holders second  in  rank,  but  scarcely  so  in  power,  to  the 
nobility.  These  are  the  gentry  of  England.  From  them 
came  most  of  the  men  distinguished  in  the  civil  wars,  on  the 
parliament's  side.  Such  was  Hampden;  such  was  Oliver 
Cromwell. 

The  kingly  prerogative  was  greatly  limited  after  the  Resto- 
ration, and  neither  Charles  nor  James  II.  dared  to  supersede 
the  laws  by  royal  proclamations,  as  their  father  and  grand- 
father had  done.  The  bills  for  granting  supplies  of  money 
originated  exclusively  in  the  House  of  Commons.  After  the 
Revolution  they  became  appropriations,  and  an  account  of 
their  expenditure  .was  strictly  required.  At  the  close  of 
William's  reign  the  revenues  of  the  crown  amounted  to  more 
than  three  millions  of  pounds  sterling.  This  was  raised  from 
the  customs  or  duties  laid  on  merchandise,  the  excise  or 
taxes  on  various  articles,  and  the  inland  duties.  The  money 
appointed  for  the  support  of  the  king's  government,  and  for 
the  royal  household,  is  called  the  Civil  List. 

Before  the  Revolution,  the  terms  Whig  and  Tory  were 
applied  to  the  parties  of  the  king  and  parliament.  The  term 
Tory  was  given  to  the  wild  Irish  beyond  the  Pale,  and  was 
first  applied  in  derision  to  the  Duke  of  York's  friends, 
because  they  favored  the  Irish  and  Roman  Catholics.  After- 
wards it  was  applied  to  the  whole  party  of  the  king,  and 
after  the  Revolution,  to  all  who  favored  the  cause  of  the 


312  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

house  of  Stuart,  and  still  later  to  the  conservative  party  who 
opposed  all  sweeping  reforms. 

The  term  Whig  signifies  in  Scotland,  where  it  originated, 
sour  whey,  and  was  given  to  the  Puritans  by  their  enemies 
about  the  year  1680.  After  the  Revolution  it  was  applied  to 
all  who  opposed  the  house  of  Stuart  and  upheld  William, 
and  subsequently  to  all  who  favored  thorough  reforms. 

The  National  Debt  of  England  began  in  the  reign  of  King 
William.  The  government  borrowed  the  money  to  support 
the  great  expenses  of  their  foreign  wars. 

Questions. — What  improvement  took  place  in  the  roads  in  this 
century? — Describe  the  condition  and  appearance  of  the  streets  of 
London  at  this  time. — Give  some  account  of  the  introduction  of  tea 
into  England. — What  island  was  lost  by  the  English  in  the  East? — 
What  two  important  settlements  did  they  gain  ? — With  what  other 
countries  was  trade  carried  on  ? — Relate  the  origin  of  the  Board  of 
Trade. 

What  is  said  of  thtf  trade  with  America? — How  many  colonies 
were  founded  there  ? — Whence  did  tobacco  take  its  name  ? — How 
did  King  James  seek  to  put  down  the  use  of  this  drug? — Relate 
the  anecdote  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh. — What  English  manufacture 
took  its  rise  in  this  century  ? — What  was  the  Edict  of  Nantes  ? — 
Describe  its  eflfect  upon  England. — What  vegetable  productions  were 
introduced  in  this  century  ? — What  is  told  of  the  Bank  of  England  ? 
— Relate  what  is  told  of  the  coinage  in  William  III.'s  reign. 

What  change  in  court  society  took  place  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  ? 
— Describe  the  living  of  the  gntry  in  those  days. — What  is  said  of 
coverings  for  the  floor  ? — Describe  the  dress  worn  by  the  men  and 
women  of  those  days. — Relate  what  is  told  of  the  morals  and  man- 
ners of  that  age. — What  change  took  place  in  the  time  of  Cromwell? 
— Describe  the  effect  of  the  Restoration  upon  manners  and  amuse- 
ments.— What  towns  rose  into  importance  in  this  century  ? 

Relate  the  circumstances  which  gave  rise  to  the  gentry  of  Eng- 
land.— What  is  said  of  the  prerogative  after  the  Restoration  ? — 
Relate  what  is  told  of  the  supplies  voted  by  parliament. — How  was 
the  royal  revenue  raised  ? — Describe  the  origin  and  application  of 
the  terms  Whig  and  Tory. — What  was  the  origin  of  the  National 
Debt? 


QUEEN    ANNE. — GEORGE   I.  313 


PART  X. 

ENGLAND  DURING  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 

QUEEN  ANNE— GEORGE  L— GEORGE  II.— GEORGE  III. 
A.  D.  1702—1800. 

*'  What  seas  were  traversed,  and  what  fields  were  fought, 
And  England's  peace,  how  oft,  how  dearly  bought, 
Till  earth's  extremes  her  mediation  own. 
And  Asia's  tyrants  tremble  at  her  throne." 


CHAPTER  LIII. 

QUEEN    ANNE. — GEORGE   I. 

FOREIGN    WARS — POLITICAL    PARTIES — UNION  —  LITERATURE — HOUSE    OP 
HANOVER — THE    PRETENDER — SEPTENNIAL  BILL — SOUTH  SEA  SCHEME. 

Queen  Anne  was  the  second  daughter  of  James  II, ,  and 
aister-in-law  of  the  late  king.  Though  a  Stuart,  she  was  a 
Protestant,  and  no  opposition  was  made  to  her  succes- 
sion. The  war  begun  with  Louis  XIV.  in  the  pre- 
vious reign,  was  carried  on  in  this.  John  Churchill,  Duke 
of  Marlborough,  the  greatest  general  of  his  age,  was  sent  to 
command  the  allied  armies  of  England,  Austria,  and  Holland, 
on  the  continent. 

By  the  splendid  victories  of  Blenheim,  RamilHes,  Oude- 
narde,  and  Malplaquet,  gained  between  tlie  years  1704  and 
1709,  he  brought  the  great  power  of  Louis  XIV.  to  the  verge 
of  destruction.  From  this,  the  French  monarch  was  saved 
only  by  the  quarrels  of  the  two  great  political  parties  in 
England.  In  the  same  year  with  the  battle  of  Blenheim  was 
27 


ol4  HlSTOKi     OF    ENGLAND. 

made  the  conquest  of  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  England's 
possessions — the  Eock  of  Gibraltar.  This  strong  fortress  was 
carried  after  a  siege  of  three  days,  by  Sir  George.  Rooke.  It 
has  ever  since  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  English,  resisting 
every  effort  on  the  part  of  Spain  to  retake  it. 

Since  the  year  1705,  the  Whig  party  had  been  in  power, 
but  in  1710,  the  Tories,  who  opposed  the  war,  gained  the 
ascendancy.  The  Duke  of  Marlborough  was  recalled;  the 
ministers  who  supported  the  war  were  turned  out  of  office, 
and,  in  1713,  the  peace  of  Utrecht  was  signed.  By  this  long 
contest  England  fearfully  augmented  her  public  debt,  and 
her  people  acquired  that  passion  for  military  glory*  always 
hurtful  in  its  effect  upon  national  character. 

The  war  had  deprived  France  of  its  great  influence,  and 
restored  what  is  called  the  ha/ance  of  power  in  Europe ;  that 
is,  preventing  any  one  state  usurping  an  authority  injurious 
to  the  interests  of  others  in  the  great  family  of  nations. 

The  queen  was  at  heart  always  a  Tory.  During  the  first 
half  of  her  reign,  she  was  completely  under  the  control  of  the 
high-spirited  Sarah,  Duchess  of  Marlborough.  When  the 
Marlboroughs  sided  with  the  Whigs,  Anne  was  obliged  to 
yield  to  a  Whig  administration.  Later  in  the  reign  the 
influence  of  the  duchess  was  supplanted  by  Mrs.  Masham,  a 
relation  of  her  own,  whom  she  had  raised  from  obscurity  to  a 
position  at  court.  Through  this  woman  the  Tories  obtained 
an  ascendancy  over  the  queen  which  led  to  their  restoration 
to  power  JU 

Anne  was  a  true  Stuart  in  her  views  of  royal  prerogative 
and  divine  right.  She  revived  the  practice  of  touching  for 
the  king's  evil,  or  scrofula,  and  an  office  was  inserted  in  the 
Prayer-Book  to  be  used  on  such  occasions.  The  celebrated 
Dr.  Johnson,  when  a  child,  was  touched  by  Queen  Anne. 
His  only  remembrance  of  her,  he  declared  in  after  years,  was 
''  a  confused,  but  somehow  a  kind  of  solemn  recollection,  of  a 
lady  in  diamonds,  and  a  long  black  hood."  The  believers  in 
this  practice  supposed  a  miraculous  power  to  reside  in  the 
royal  touch,  whereby  the  patient  was  healed  of  the  disease. 


QUEEN   ANNE. — GEORGE  I.  315 

In  Queen  Anne's  reign,  in  the  year  1707,  was  effected  the 
union  between  England  and  Scotland.  Thenceforth  the  two 
countries  became  one,  under  the  title  of  the  Kingdom  of  Great 
Britain.  By  the  treaty  which  accomplished  this  union,  Scot- 
land ceased  to  be  an  independent  country.  One  parliament 
sits  for  the  united  kingdoms,  in  which  Scotland  is  represented 
by  sixteen  peers  in  the  House  of  Lords,  and  forty-jBive  mem- 
bers in  the  House  of  Commons. 

The  reign  of  Queen  Anne  was  distinguished  by  a  more 
imperishable  glory  than  that  thrown  around  it  by  the  victories 
of  the  great  Duke  of  Marlborough.  It  was  made  brilliant  by 
the  writings  of  Addison,  Swift,  and  Pope,  who,  together  with 
a  long  list  of  other  scarce  less  illustrious  authors,  have  con- 
tributed to,  make  this  period  one  of  the  most  remarkable  in 
the  history  of  English  literature. 

When  Queen  Anne  died,  in  the  year  1714,  George,  elector 
of  Hanover,  became  king  of  England.  He  was  the  great- 
grandson  of  Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of  James  I.,  who  had 
married  Frederick,  king  of  Bohemia. 

From  the  accession  of  the  house  of  Hanover,  the  influence 
of  the  ministers  and  of  parliament  becomes  of  much  greater 
importance,  in  the  history  of  the  nation,  than  the  personal 
character  of  the  sovereign.  At  the  death  of  Queen  Anne 
the  Tory  party  lost  its  power,  and  the,  Whigs,  with  the  wise 
and  powerful  Sir  Robert  Walpole  as  their  leader,  came  into 
office. 

The  year  after  the  accession  of  King  George  L,  Great 
Britain    was   invaded    by    Prince   James    Frederick 

X  '7X5 

Edward  Stuart.  He  was  the  only  son  of  James  II. 
Aided  by  the  French  king  and  the  Jacobite  party  in  England, 
and  especially  encouraged  by  the  devoted  Stuart-loyalty  of  the 
Highland  clans  of  Scotland,  he  landed  in  that  country,  and 
prepared  to  assert  his  claim  to  the  throne.  His  plans  were 
badly  laid;  he  had  very  little  personal  bravery,  and,  notwith- 
standing the  ardent  enthusiasm  of  his  followers,  he  became 
dispirited,  and  finally  gave  up  the  cause,  and  fled  back  to 
France  in  disguise.     Mauy  paid  the  penalty  of  death  for  the 


816  KISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

share  they  had  taken  in  this  insurrection.  Among  the  most 
distinguished  victims  who  suffered  for  the  Pretender,  were 
Lord  Kenmure,  a  Scotch  nobleman,  and  James  Radcliff, 
Earl  of  Derwentwater. 

In  the  third  year  of  the  reign  of  King  George  I. 
was  passed  the  Septennial  Bill,  prolonging  the  dura- 
tion of  parliament  to  seven  years.  Under  the  triennial  law, 
the  elections  of  members  every  three  years  had  caused  great 
disturbances,  owing  to  the  excited  state  of  political  feeling 
between  the  Whigs  and  Tories.  The  continuance  of  the 
same  parliament  for  seven  years  was  therefore  a  beneficial 
measure,  and  contributed  greatly  to  the  tranquillity  of  the 
country. 

In  the  year  1711,  the  public  debt  of  England  amounted  to 
ten  millions  of  pounds,  which  was  thought  at  that  time  quite 
insupportable.  To  get  rid  of  this  great  national  encumbrance, 
in  the  course  of  a  certain  prescribed  number  of  years,  a  specu- 
lator named  Sir  John  Blount,  proposed  in  1719  the  following 
plan  :  to  make  a  certain  wealthy  and  prosperous  commercial 
company,  known  as  the  South  Sea  Company,  the  sole  public 
creditor.  Then  to  increase  this  company's  privileges  and 
monopolies,  to  such  a  degree,  as  to  make  it  enormously  rich, 
and  thus  enable  it,  not  only  to  pay  off  the  national  debt,  but 
also  to  lend  money  to  government  at  a  low  rate  of  interest. 

Immense  numbers  to  whom  the  government  owed 
money  bought  stock  in  this  company,  which,  instead 
of  being  able  to  fulfil  its  engagements,  failed,  and  involved  in 
ruin  thousands  who  had  put  their  trust  in  it.  This  scheme 
is  usually  called  the  South  Sea  Bubble.  Sir  Robert  Walpole 
earnestly  opposed  it  from  the  first,  and  when  the  bubble 
burst,  did  all  that  a  wise  financier  could  do,  to  lessen  the 
mischief  and  misery  which  it  brought  upon  the  nation. 

In  1727,  George  I.  died  suddenly  in  his  carriage,  whilst 
journeying  in  Germany  to  the  palace  of  his  brother,  the 
bishop  of  Osnaburgh. 

Questions. — Who  was  Queen  Anne? — Who  commanded  the  allied 


GEORGE   II.  317 

forces  on  tlie  continent  ? — Mention  the  result  of  his  operations  on 
the  continent. — Describe  the  capture  of  Gibraltar. — What  party  came 
into  power  in  1710? — What  was  the  result  of  their  ascendancy? — 
What  had  been  the  effect  of  these  continental  wars  upon  England  ? — 
What  the  effect  on  France  and  Europe  generally  ? 

Mention  an  important  event  which  occurred  in  1707. — Describe 
the  effect  of  the  union  upon  Scotland. — Mention  some  names  of  lite- 
rary distinction  during  this  reign. — Name  some  of  their  works. — 
Who  succeeded  Queen  Anne  ? — By  what  right  ? — What  change  took 
place  at  this  time  affecting  the  personal  importance  of  the  sovereign  ? 
— What  party  came  into  office  on  the  accession  of  George  I.  ? — AVho 
invaded  England  in  1715? — By  whom  was  he  encouraged  ? — What 
was  the  issue  of  this  invasion? — Name  some  of  those  who  suffered 
in  consequence  of  it. 

What  bill  affecting  parliament  was  passed  in  1716  ? — Describe  the 
effect  of  the  previous  law. — State  the  amount  of  the  public  debt  at 
this  time. — Describe  Sir  John  Blount's  plan  for  getting  rid  of  it. — 
Relate  the  history  and  result  of  this  scheme. — By  what  name  is  it 
known  ? — Who  opposed  it  ? — When  and  where  did  George  I.  die  ? 


CHAPTER  LIV. 

GEORGE   II. 

WALPOLe'S    ADMIXISTRATION — FOREIGN  WARS — THE   YOXTNa   PRETENDKR— 
ENGLAND    AND    THE    SEVEN    YEARS'  WAR. 

George  II.,  the  son  of  the  late  king,  came  to  the  throne 
in  the  year  1727.  For  jSfteen  years  longer,  the  administra- 
tion of  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  who  had  become  prime  minister 
in  the  year  1721,  continued,  with  great  advantage  to  the 
nation.  It  was  an  administration  of  peace.  He  sought  to 
advance  his  country  in  those  arts  which  contribute  to  social 
prosperity,  and  cared  little  for  the  doubtful  glories  of  the 
battle-field.  Notwithstanding  these  peaceful  dispositions,  in 
which  he  was  greatly  aided  by  a  similar  policy  on  the  part 
of  the  good  Cardinal  Fleury,  then  prime  minister  of  France, 
Walpole,  rather  than  resign  office,  yielded  his  sense  of  right 
27* 


318  HISTORY   OF   EiNGLAND. 

and  justice  to  the  clamors  of  the  nation,  and  engaged  in  a 
war  with  Spain.  The  English  people,  indignant  against  the 
Spaniards,  because  they  searched  English  ships  engaged  in 
unlawful  trafl&c  with  the  Spanish  colonies  in  America,  and 
lured  on  by  the  hope  of  the  rich  spoils  which  the  conquest  of 
those  colonies  would  afford,  were  loud  in  their  rejoicings  when 
the  war  was  declared.  Walpole,  on  the  day  that  the  procla- 
mation was  made,  hearing  joyful  peals  resounding  from  the 
church-bells,  exclaimed:  "They  may  ring  the  bells  now; 
before  long  they  will  be  wringing  their  hands."  And  so  it 
proved.  The  war  was  disastrous.  Walpole  became  unpopular 
with  the  nation,  and  in  1742,  after  having  guided  the  helm 
of  state  with  ability  and  success  for  a  period  of  twenty  years, 
was  compelled  to  resign  his  post  as  prime  minister. 

Before  Walpole's  resignation,  however,  England  had  en- 
gaged in  another  war,  by  becoming  the  ally  of  Maria  Theresa 
of  Austria.  This  noble  and  high-spirited  queen  had  been 
robbed  of  a  portion  of  her  territory  by  the  king 
of  Prussia,  whilst  the  elector  of  Bavaria  disputed 
her  accession  to  the  imperial  throne.  England  espoused  the 
cause  of  the  injured  Maria  Theresa,  whilst  France  sided  with 
Frederick  of  Prussia  and  the  Bavarian  prince. 

Some  of  the  most  important  operations  during  the  course 

1744:    ^^  ^^^®  ^^^f  ^  ^^'  ^  France  and  England  were  con- 
and      cerned,  were  carried  on  in  their  colonial  possessions 

^'^^^'  in  America.  The  English  had  settled  the  seaboard 
colonies  from  Maine  to  Georgia.  The  French  had  planted 
Canada  and  Louisiana.  The  settlements  which  England, 
during  a  century  of  war  and  persecution,  had  founded,  had 
now  grown  into  hardy  and  prosperous  colonies.  The  colonists 
loved  their  mother  country,  and,  almost  unaided  by  England, 
they  maintained  her  possessions  in  the  New  World  against 
the  attacks  of  the  French.  Indeed  the  only  successes  which 
crowned  the  English  arms  in  America  during  this  war,  were 
gained  by  colonial  bravery  and  enterprise. 

Whilst  the  armies  of  England  were  thus  engaged 
in  foreign  wars,  the  kingdom  was  again  invaded  by  a 


GEORGE   II.  319 

Stuart  pretender.  This  was  Charles  Edward  Louis  Philip 
Cassimir  Stuart,  the  son  of  James  Frederick,  or  "  the  Old 
Pretender/'  as  the  latter  is  usually  called.  In  July,  1745, 
with  only  a  handful  of  followers,  he  landed  in  one  of  the 
western  islands  of  Scotland.  To  the  enthusiasm  of  the  High- 
land chieftains  no  dark  "  coming  events  cast  their  shadow 
before,"  and  before  the  Young  Pretender  had  been  three 
months  in  Scotland,  he  raised,  by  the  mere  power  of  his 
personal  influence,  an  army  of  twenty-five  hundred  men,  and 
took  possession  of  Edinburgh. 

At  Preston  Pans  he  encountered  the  royal  army,  which 
quailed  and  fled  before  the  furious  onset  of  the  Highlanders. 
In  this  action  fell  the  brave  and  pious  Colonel  Gardiner, 
whose  remarkable  history  has  been  made  familiar  to  the  world 
by  the  pen  of  Doddridge.  Charles's  adherents  were  chiefly 
Highland  chieftains  and  their  clans,  who  hoped  to  see  the 
independence  of  Scotland  restored,  with  a  lineal  descendant 
of  the  ancient  royal  line  seated  upon  the  throne. 

When,  therefore.  Prince  Charles  Edward  led  them  across 
the  border,  and  plainly  showed  that  his  ambition  aspired  to 
the  rule  of  the  united  kingdom,  the  enthusiasm  and  the 
number  of  his  followers  declined.  He  advanced  within  one 
hundred  and  thirty  miles  of  London,  but  his  officers  absolutely 
refused  to  encounter  the  English  forces,  and  the  prince  was 
obliged  to  yield  to  their  opposition,  and  retreat  into  Scotland. 
In  the  winter  he  was  again  compelled  to  give  way  to  the 
demands  of  his  followers,  and,  abandoning  the  fruits  of  a 
victory  gained  over  the  P]nglish  at  Falkirk,  and  the  siege  of 
Stirling  Castle,  he  retired  to  the  Highlands.  Thither  he  was 
followed  by  a  large  force  of  English  and  Lowland  cavalrj'-, 
commanded  by  King  George's  second  son,  the  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland. 

The  two  armies  met  in  "battle  array''  on  Culloden  Moor, 
a  few  miles  from  Inverness,  and  there  was  fought  the  fatal 
action^  which  for  ever  blasted  the  hopes  of  the  Stuarts,  and 
crushed  the  last  attempt  to  place  this  unfortunate  race  upon 
a  kingly  throne.     The  cruelties  inflicted  after  the  battle  of 


320  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

Culloden,  have  cast  a  dark  stain  on  the  character  of  the  Duke 
of  Cumberland. 

A  reward  of  thirty  thousand  pounds  was  placed  on  the 
head  of  the  Young  Pretender.  Amid  the  wretched  cabins 
of  the  Highlands  and  the  Western  Isles,  there  was  not  found 
one  who  would  betray  the  hiding-place  of  the  royal  fugitive. 
After  a  series  of  striking  and  romantic  adventures,  Charles 
Edward  escaped  in  a  fishing-boat  to  France.  No  family  of 
royal  lineage  seem  to  have  inspired  more  ardent  devotion  to 
their  persons,  than  the  unhappy  race  of  Stuarts. 

In  the  year  1748,  the  contending  states  of  Europe  entered 
into  a  treaty  of  peace,  which  was  signed  at  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
A  few  years  later,  another  contest,  called,  from  its  duration, 
*'  the  Seven  Years'  War,"  engaged  the  nations  of  Europe. 

The  position  of  parties,  however,  was  greatly  changed. 
England  and  France  were  still  enemies,  but  France  fought 
with  Maria  Theresa,  and  England  was  the  ally  of  Frederick 
of  Prussia.  The  opening  scenes  of  this  war  were  laid  in  the 
French  and  English  colonies  of  America. 

The  French,  in  the  year  1754,  began  the  erection  of  a  chain 

of  posts,  extending  along  the  great  lakes,  and  the  Ohio  and 

the  Mississippi  rivers.     These  were  designed  to  connect  their 

colonies  in  Canada  with  those  in  Louisiana.     In  carrying  out 

this  design  they  intruded  on  territory  claimed  by  the  English 

colony  of  Virginia.     The  English  remonstrated ;  no  attention 

was  paid  to  their  remonstrances,  and  war  ensued.     The  first 

1755     y^^^  0^  t^6  ^'^^  i^  America,  as  well  as  on  the  conti- 

to       nent,  were  unfortunate  for  the  English.     They  were 

'   marked  by  such  disasters  as  Braddock's  defeat,  and 

the  loss  of  the  island  of  Minorca. 

This  latter  possession,  granted  to  England  by  the  peace  of 
Utrecht,  was  much  valued  by  the  nation,  and  as  much  envied 
and  coveted  by  the  French.  In  the  spring  of  1756,  the  latter 
government  sent  out  a  large  force  for  the  conquest  of  the 
island.  The  English  ministry  became  alarmed,  and,  knowing 
Minorca  to  be  too  feebly  garrisoned  to  hold  out  long  against  a 
superior  force,  despatched  Admiral  Byng  to  the  Mcditerra- 


GEORGE   II.  321 

nean  for  its  relief.  The  admiral  encountered  the  French 
fleet;  an  indecisive  action  ensued,  after  which,  Byng,  thinking 
that  another  encounter,  even  if  successful,  would  not  suffice  to 
raise  the  siege,  withdrew  to  Gibraltar,  leaving  Minorca  to  its 
fate.  After  a  gallant  resistance,  the  brave  garrison  surren- 
dered. Admiral  Byng  was  taken  to  England,  tried  by  a 
court-martial  on  the  charge  of  neglect  of  duty,  found  guilty, 
and,  by  the  severe  penalty  of  the  12th  Article  of  War,  con- 
demned to  be  shot.  The  sentence  was  executed  on  the 
quarter-deck  of  the  ship  Monarque,  in  Portsmouth  harbor. 

The  ill-success  of  the  war  aroused  the  displeasure  of  the 
nation  against  the  ministry,  and  the  Duke  of  Newcastle,  then 
premier,  was  forced  to  resign.  He  was  succeeded  by  the 
Duke  of  Devonshire  as  nominal  premier,  whilst  William  Pitt, 
the  new  secretary  of  state,  was  virtually  at  the  head  of  affairs. 
Pitt  possessed  the  confidence  of  the  nation,  but  was  disliked 
by  the  king,  who,  at  the  end  of  a  few  months,  dismissed  him 
from  office.  Popular  resentment  became  so  strong,  however, 
that  even  the  monarch  was  compelled  to  bow  before  it,  and 
restore  the  able  minister,  in  whom  alone  the  nation  confided 
as  competent  to  guide  the  ship  of  state  through  the  storms 
which  threatened. 

William  Pitt  (afterwards  Earl  of  Chatham)  was  a  member 
of  the  House  of  Commons :  a  representative  of  the  gentry  of 
England.  x\ble  and  eloquent,  supported  by  the  love  and 
confidence  of  the  nation,  this  statesman  raised  his  country  to 
a  brilliant  pitch  of  military  glory. 

The  war  assumed   a  new  aspect.      In   x\merica,   success 

crowned  the  arms  of  the  Enghsh  and  colonial  troops.     Quebec 

surrendered  to  the  heroic  valor  of  the  young  General  Wolfe. 

The  hero  fell  in  the  moment  of  victory,  leaving  as  a  glorious 

lesracy  to  the  country  he  so  nobly  served,  the  French 
1759.       ^     f  •  /.  A         • 

colonial  possessions  oi  America. 


Questions. — Who  succeeded  George  I.  ? — Describe  the  administra- 
tion of  Walpole. — Mention  the  causes  and  motives  which  led  to  a  war 
with  Spain. — In  what  way  did  Walpole  express  his  opinion  of  this 

X 


322  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

war? — What  befell  this  minister  in  1742? — Describe  the  wrongs  in- 
flicted upon  Maria  Theresa. — What  power  sided  with  her  enemies? — 
How  did  England  act  ? 

In  what  part  of  America  had  the  English  planted  colonies? — 
Describe  their  condition.— What  was  the  conduct  of  the  English 
colonies  in  this  war? — Give  the  history  of  the  invasion  of  the 
"Young  Pretender." — What  treaty  was  signed  in  the  year  1748? — 
Describe  the  position  of  the  parties  engaged  in  the  "Seven  Years' 
War." — State  the  circumstances  which  led  to  hostilities  in  America. 
— What  is  remarked  of  the  early  years  of  this  war? — Relate  the 
history  of  the  expedition  sent  to  Minorca. — What  was  the  fate  of 
Admiral  Byng? — How  did  the  results  of  the  war  affect  the  ministry  ? 
— Who  succeeded  Newcastle  ? — Describe  the  position  and  character 
of  Pitt. — Relate  the  successful  operations  of  the  war  in  America. 


CHAPTER  LV. 

GEORGE   II. — THE   ENGLISH    IN    INDIA. 

THEIR     COLONIES  —  THE    GREAT    MOGUL — FRENCH     RIVALS  —  OLIVE  —  THE 
BLACK    HOLE    OF    CALCUTTA — PLASSEY — SUBSEQUENT   VICTORIES. 

Before  the  glory  of  England's  arms  had  been  retrieved  in 
the  New  World,  and  Wolfe  had  fallen  on  the  ramparts  of 
Quebec,  another  young  and  ardent  English  hero  had  laid  the 
foundation  of  British  empire  in  a  more  distant  portion  of  the 
globe.  We  have  seen  that  the  East  India  Company  had 
established  factories  for  trade  in  Hindostan.  On  the  eastern 
coast  they  had  built  Fort  St.  Greorge.  The  village  of  a  half- 
dozen  fishermen's  huts,  with  the  dwelling  of  a  French  priest, 
found  there  in  1640,  had  grown  into  the  flourishing  town  of 
Madras. 

A  little  further  south,  on  the  Coromandel  coast,  was  built 

Fort  St.   David,  whilst  on  the   Hoogly,  Fort  William,  the 

origin  of  the  splendid  city  of  Calcutta,  arose  a  few  years 

1698     ^®^*^^®  Peter  the  Great  had  laid  the  foundations  of 

his  capital  of  St.  Petersburg  on  the  banks  of  the 

Neva.     On  the  Malabar  coast,  Bombay  was  the  important 


GEORGE   II. — THE   ENGLISH    IN    INDIA.  323 

settlement.  All  these  had  been  founded  before  the  close  of 
the  seventeenth  century.  Difficulties  with  the  Dutch  and 
Portuguese  no  longer  existed,  but  another  formidable  rival 
had  appeared,  to  dispute  with  England  her  lucrative  trade  in 
India. 

The  French  had  established  factories  on  the  Hooorly 

16T0.  .  . 

and  also  at  Pondicherry,  about  eighty  miles  below 
Madras,  in  the  large  southern  province  of  India  known  as  the 
Carnatic.  When  France  and  England  were  at  war,  their 
colonies,  whether  in  India  or  America,  were  involved  in  the 
same  calamity.  In  the  year  174G,  Fort  St.  George  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  French.  The  garrison,  surrendering  after  a 
short  but  brave  defence,  were  promised  honorable  treatment. 
This  promise  was  broken,  and  they  were  carried  prisoners  to 
Pondicherry.  Numbers  of  them  contrived  to  escape,  and 
among  these,  habited  in  the  disguise  of  a  Hindoo,  Robert 
Clive,  a  young  merchant's  clerk  of  twenty-one,  fled  to  Fort 
St.  David.  Such  was  the  position  of  affairs  when  the  treaty 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle  obliged  the  French  to  restore  Madras.  We 
shall  find,  however,  that,  as  allies  of  the  native  princes,  the 
French  and  English  in  India  carried  on  hostilities  even  when 
the  mother  countries  were  at  peace. 

From  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  India  had 
been  governed  by  a  potentate  called  "the  Great  Mogul,"  who 
resided  in  much  pomp  at  his  capital  of  Delhi,  and  appointed 
viceroys,  who,  nominally  under  him,  but  truly  by  their  own 
power,  ruled  the  provinces  of  Hindostan.  Of  the  splendor 
of  the  court  of  Aurungzebe,  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  Great 
Moguls,  descriptions  are  given,  which  surpass  the  wonders  of 
a  fairy  tale. 

A  French  traveller,  who  visited  Aurungzebe's  court  in  the 
year  1665,  tells  us  of  his  '^ seven  splendid  thrones;  one 
covered  with  diamonds,  another  with  rubies,  with  emeralds, 
or  with  pearls.''  Whilst  the  Great  Mogul  was  seated  on  his 
Peacock  Throne,  so  called  from  its  back  being  formed  by 
jewelled  representations  of  peacocks'  tails,  thirty  splendid 
horses  stood  ready  caparisoned,  with  bridles  set  with  precious 


324  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

gems,  and  a  large  and  valuable  jewel  hanging  from  the  neck 
of  each.  Elephants  were  taught  to  kneel  before  the  throne, 
and  do  homage  with  their  trunks. 

The  French  traveller  must  have  been  struck  with  the 
insignificant  pomp  of  the  court  of  his  Grand  Monarque,  then 
the  most  splendid  in  Europe,  when  he  contrasted  it  with  the 
surpassing  magnificence  of  this  oriental  despot.  But  the 
great  Aurungzebe,  when  the  years  of  his  earthly  glory  had 
numbered  nearly  one  hundred,  was  gathered  to  his  fathers, 
and  the  throne  of  Delhi  was  mounted  by  another  Mogul,  as 
great  in  outward  state  and  splendor,  but  of  feeble  character. 

He  had  no  power  to  withstand  the  gradual  but  sure  progress 
of  the  strange  nation  from  fifteen  thousand  miles  afar,  who  in 
God's  providence  were  destined  to  overthrow  the  power  of  the 
Great  Mogul,  and  plant  a  Christian  dominion  in  India.  This, 
too,  they  were  to  aecompli.sh  in  less  than  half  a  century. 

Meanwhile  the  powers  of  the  viceroys  in  the  provinces 
greatly  increased.  In  the  quarrels  continually  arising  among 
them,  the  French  and  English  interfered,  taking,  of  course, 
opposite  sides.  In  the  wars  which  followed,  the  French  and 
their  Indian  allies  were  so  successful,  that  they  threatened  to 
drive  the  English  from  the  Carnatic.  By  the  year  1751,  the 
latter  were  reduced  to  great  extremity.  The  nabob  of  Arcot, 
the  only  Indian  prince  remaining  faithful  to  their  interest, 
was  besieged  by  the  French  in  his  last  stronghold,  which,  if 
captured,  would  render  the  victors  undisputed  masters  of  the 
country. 

At  this  juncture,  Robert  Clive  planned  and  executed  an 
expedition  which  saved  British  India.  The  English,  feebly 
garrisoned  at  Madras  and  Fort  St.  David,  could  spare  no 
piilitary  force  to  send  to  the  relief  of  their  ally.  Clive  raised 
9,  little  band  of  five  hundred  men,  three  hundred  of  whom 
were  Sepoys  (natives  who  made  miserable  soldiers),  and  placed 
over  it  officers,  who,  like  himself,  were  mostly  merchants' 
clerks.  With  this  force  he  suddenly  marched  to  Arcot,  the 
capital  of  the  Carnatic,  hoping  to  excite  fears  for  the  safety 


GEORGE    II. — THE    ExNGLISH    IN    INDIA.  325 

of  this  important  place,  and  thus  draw  the  French  and  Indian 
foes  from  their  attack  on  the  English  ally. 

Advancing  during  a  violent  thunderstorm,  he  made  him- 
self master  of  the  strong  town  and  fortress,  not  by  assault,  but 
by  taking  advantage  of  the  panic  which  his  dauntless  courage 
struck  in  the  minds  of  the  superstitious  natives.  The  French 
ally  sent  a  large  detachment  to  recover  Arcot,  but  Clive  held 
the  town,  bravely  repulsed  the  besiegers,  conquered  other 
possessions  from  the  French,  relieved  the  nabob  of 

and  Arcot,  and  eifectually  restored  the  influence  of  the 
1758.   gjjgiig}^  jjj  ^^Q  Carnatic. 

A  few  years  later,  this  merchant's  clerk,  who  seems  to 
have  been  "  born  a  soldier,"  gained  victories  which  still  more 
firmly  established  the  power  of  the  English  in  India.  In  the 
northern  province  of  Bengal,  there  ruled,  in  the  year  1756, 
the  Nabob  Surajah  Dowlah,  a  cruel  and  detestable  tyrant. 
Becoming  jealous  of  the  English,  who  he  fancied  had  accu- 
mulated great  wealth  in  their  factories  at  Calcutta,  he  ad- 
vanced against  that  place  with  a  large  army.  After  a  fruitless 
attempt  at  defence,  the  garrison  of  Fort  William  surrendered, 
under  promise  that  their  lives  should  be  spared. 

Left  to  the  charge  of  the  officers  of  the  guard,  these  inhu- 
man servants  of  an  inhuman  master  thrust  "  in  the  common 
dungeon  of  the  fort,"  the  Black  Hole,  as  it  was  called,  "  its 
size  only  eighteen  feet  by  fourteen;  its  air-holes  only  two 
small  windows,  and  these  overhung  by  a  low  verandah,  one 
hundred  and  forty-five  European  men  and  one  English  woman, 
some  of  them  suff'ering  from  recent  wounds,  and  this  in  the 
night  of  the  Indian  summer-solstice,  when  the  fiercest  heat 
was  raging."  The  horrors  of  that  night  the  pen  shrinks  from 
recording. 

In  vain  were  bribes  offered  to  their  gaolers  for  relief.  The 
only  answer  was:  "  The  nabob  is  asleep."  No  one  dared  to 
disturb  him.  Mid  agonizing  cries  of  "  water  !  water  !"  these 
wretched  beings  trampled  down  each  other,  to  get  near  the 
air-holes,  outside  the  bars  of  which  were  held  skins  of  water, 
but,  as  if  in  awful  aggravation  of  their  misery,  these  were  too 
28 


326  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

large  to  get  through  the  grating.  Meanwhile  their  fiend-like 
gaolers  made  most  inhuman  mirth  at  their  fearful  condition, 
and  held  the  lanterns  high  to  gaze  upon  the  scene  within,  as 
though  it  had  been  the  struggle  of  brute  beasts,  intended  for 
the  amusement  of  beings  scarcely  less  brutal. 

Ere  morning  dawned,  a  fearful  silence  reigned  in  the  Black 
Hole  of  Calcutta.      Of  one  hundred  and  forty-six 

1756.  *  ^^^^"  beings,  who  had  been  there  imprisoned, 
twenty-three  alone  came  out  through  the  passage 
made  between  dead  bodies.  Strange  to  say,  one  of  these  was 
the  Englishwoman. 

When  the  news  of  this  dreadful  outrage  reached  Madras, 
the  horror  and  indignation  of  the  English  knew  no  bounds. 
Clive  proceeded  with  an  army  to  Calcutta,  and  on  the  2d  of 
January,  1757,  regained  possession  of  the  town  and  fort 
In  a  few  months  he  fought  Surajah  Dowlah  at  Plassey, 
gained  a  complete  and  brilliant  victory  with  three  thousand 
men  fighting  against  fifty  thousand,  drove  the  inhuman  mon- 
ster from  his  throne,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  English 
power  in  Northern  India. 

Hitherto  the  East  India  Company  had  been  only  merchants 
and  traders;  henceforth  we  shall  find  them  conquerors  and 
sovereigns.  The  battle  of  Plassey  was  fought  on  the  23d  of 
June,  1757.  Three  years  later,  Sir  Eyre  Coote  won  from  the 
French  the  battle  of  Wandewash.  This  victory, 
''iTGO^'  together  with  the  fall  of  Pondicherry,  which  oc- 
curred within  a  year,  established  the  supremacy 
of  the  English  in  the  Carnatic,  as  firmly  as  that  of  Plassey 
had  done  in  Bengal.  Clive,  whose  health  had  become  im- 
paired, returned  to  England  in  the  year  1760.  He  was 
created  a  peer,  with  the  title  of  Baron  Clive  of  Plassey.  In 
1765,  he  returned  to  India  as  governor  of  Bengal. 

In  the  year  1760,  before  the  news  of  the  great  victories  of 
Wandewash  and  Pondicherry  had  reached  England,  George 
II.  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  George  III. 

Questions. — Give  some  account  of  the  diflferent  establishments  of 


GEORGE   III.  327 

the  English  in  India. — Mention  the  establishments  of  the  French. — 
What  followed  the  surrender  of  Fort  St.  George? — How  was  this 
state  of  affairs  affected  by  the  peace  ? — Relate  what  is  told  of  the 
Great  Mogul. — Describe  the  condition  of  India  after  the  death  of 
Aurungzebe. — Describe  the  part  taken  by  the  French  and  English 
in  these  quarrels. — Relate  the  success  of  the  French  at  this  time. — 
Describe  the  position  of  the  English. 

Relate  the  conduct  of  Clive,  and  the  result. — By  whom  was  Bengal 
ruled  at  this  time  ? — What  was  his  treatment  of  the  English  ? — 
Describe  their  sufferings  in  the  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta. — What  re- 
venge was  inflicted  by  the  English  ? — AVhen  and  where,  and  with 
what  result,  was  the  battle  fought  ? — Where,  by  whom,  and  with 
what  result,  was  a  battle  fought  three  years  later? — What  honors 
were  bestowed  upon  Clive  ? — When  did  George  II.  die  ? 


CHAPTER  LVI. 

GEORGE   III. 

CHARACTERS  OP  THE  SOVEREIGNS — WILLIAM  PITT — WAR  WITH  SPAIN- 
PROSECUTION  OP  WILKES — TAXATION  OP  THE  AMERICAN  COLONIES- 
WAR  IN  CONSEQUENCE — THE  RESULT  OP  THE  CONTEST — SIEGE  OP  GIB- 
RALTAR. 

On  the  25tli  of  October,  1760,  George  III.,  at  the  age  of 
twenty-two,  entered  upon  the  longest,  and,  in  some  respects, 
the  most  prosperous  reign  in  the  annals  of  English  history. 
Pious,  and  endued  with  kindly  affections,  the  personal  cha- 
racter of  this  monarch  gained  the  ever-increasing  love  and 
respect  of  his  subjects.  The  royal  household  afforded  an 
example  of  good  morals  and  domestic  happiness,  to  which 
the  nation  had  been  long  unaccustomed  in  the  courts  of  its 
sovereigns. 

Some  years  before  King  George's  accession,  Charlotte,  the 
young  princess  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  had  sent  a  letter  to 
Frederick  the  Great,  remonstrating  against  the  cruelty  of  his 
troops,  then  laying  waste  a  German  province.  She  writes  in 
this  letter :  "  I  know,  sir,  that,  in  this  vicious  age,  I  may  be 


328  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND 

laughed  at  for  allowing  my  heart  to  mourn  my  country's  ruin, 
to  deplore  the  evils  of  war,  and  to  wish  with  ^11  my  soul  for 
the  return  of  peace.  You,  sir,  will  perhaps  think  that  I 
ought  rather  to  practise  myself  in  the  arts  of  pleasing,  or  in 
my  household  affairs.  But  be  this  as  it  may,  my  heart  feels 
so  much  for  these  poor  unhappy  peoprle,  that  it  cannot  with- 
hold a  pressing  entreaty  in  their  behalf." 

This  letter  was  sent  by  King  Frederick  to  the  court  of  his 
ally,  George  II.  There  it  was  seen  by  the  Prince  of  Wales, 
on  whom  it  made  a  deep  impression.  When  he  became  king 
he  married  the  good  and  gentle  princess  of  Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz.  The  marriage  took  place  the  year  succeeding  that 
of  his  accession  to  the  throne,  and  shortly  after,  the  royal 
couple  were  crowned  with  magnificent  ceremonies  at  West- 
minster Abbey. 

When  George  III.  came  to  the  throne,  the  power  and  glory 
of  William  Pitt  were  at  their  height.  The  French  had  been 
defeated  in  America,  in  India,  and  on  the  continent,  and  the 
victories  of  Quebec  and  Pondicherry  were  chiefly  due  to  the 
spirit  of  military  ardor  with  which  this  statesman  had  inspired 
the  army  and  navy  of  Great  Britain. 

These  triumphs,  although  flattering  to  national  pride,  had 
been  gained  at  an  immense  expense,  and  a  party  headed  by 
the  Earl  of  Bute,  then  the  most  influential  adviser  of  the 
king,  was  solicitous  for  peace.  Whilst  the  ambassadors  at 
the  courts  of  the  interested  nations  were  arranging 
the  terms  of  a  treaty,  the  kings  of  France  and  Spain 
entered  into  a  secret  compact,  which  tended  to  disturb  the 
balance  of  power  in  Europe,  and  to  prove  highly  injurious  to 
the  interests  of  England. 

This  Family  Compact,  so  called  because  the  kings  who 
made  it  were  both  Bourbons,  came  to  the  knowledge  of 
William  Pitt.  In  order  to  prevent  its  evil  results,  he  pro- 
posed that  England  should  at  once  declare  war  against  Spain 
Unable  to  carry  this  measure,  the  minister  retired  from  office 
He  bore  with  him  the  affection  and  confidence  of  the  nation 
which  was  not  given  to  his  successor,  the  Earl  of  Bute. 


GEORGE    III.  329 

To  add  to  Pitt's  popularity,  the  new  ministry  was  obliged, 
within  three  months  of  his  resignation,  to  declare  war  against 
Spain.  And  still  higher  to  raise  the  triumph  of  the  great 
commoner,  the  most  glorious  achievements  of  the  war — the 
conquest  of  Havana  in  the  West,  and  of  Manilla  in  the  East 
Indies — were  enterprises  both  of  which  Pitt  was  known  to 
have  planned. 

France  and  Spain,  humbled  by  their  losses,  were 
soon  willing  to  make  peace.  The  Earl  of  Bute,  who 
ruled  in  the  councils  of  England,  was  so  anxious  for  peace, 
that  he  agreed  to  terms  which  were  deemed  less  favorable  than 
those  which  the  nation  had  a  right  to  demand,  considering 
the  advantages  which  England  had  gained,  and  the  expense 
.she  had  incurred.  The  treaty  was  signed  at  Paris,  February 
10th,  1763. 

The  unpopularity  of  the  Earl  of  Bute  became  so  great  that 
he  was  obliged  to  resign  office.  Sir  George  Grenville  suc- 
ceeded him  as  prime  minister.  His  administration  was 
marked  by  two  important  events  :  the  prosecution  of  Wilkes, 
and  the  taxation  of  the  American  colonies. 

John  Wilkes  was  a  member  of  parliament,  and  editor  of  a 
newspaper  called  "  The  North  Briton."     In  the  forty-fifth 
number  of  this  paper  he  made  an  attack  on  the  personal 
character  of  the  king.     For  this  offence,  a  general  warrant 
was  issued,  under  which  Wilkes's  papers  were  seized,  and 
Wilkes  himself  was  arrested  and  thrown  into  the  Tower.     A 
few  days  after,  he  was  brought  by  writ  of  habeas  corpus  before 
the  chief  justice  of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  who  declared 
that  general  warrants  were  illegal,  and  Wilkes  was  conse- 
quently liberated.     Prosecuted  in  parliament,  he  was  sum- 
moned to  appear  at  the  bar  of  the  Commons,  on  a  charge  of 
libel.     He  refused  at  first  on  the  plea  of  ill  health,  and  then 
taking   the   opportunity  of  an    adjournment  of  the  house, 
escaped  to  Paris.     He  was  expelled  from  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, and  a  sentence  of  outlawry  was  passed  against 
to       him.     A  few  years  after,  Wilkes  returned  to  Ew^- 
*'*^'   land,    and    was   elected   member   of  parliament   for 
28* 


330  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

Middlesex,  but  he  was  not  allowed  to  take  his  seat.  These 
attacks  on  the  freedom  of  elections  and  liberty  of  the  press, 
made  Wilkes,  although  a  man  of  corrupt  morals,  extremely 
popular,  and  excited  much  feeling  throughout  the  country. 
At  length,  in  1774,  government  grew  tired  of  this  perse- 
cution, lie  was  elected  lord  mayor,  and  allowed  to  sit  in 
parliament. 

The  English  colonies  in  the  wilds  of  America,  although 
harassed  by  Indian  and  colonial  wars,  had  grown  in  numbers 
and  prosperity.  They  had  received  but  little  fostering  care 
or  kindly  encouragement  from  the  mother  country,  yet  their 
affection  for  England  was  both  ardent  and  sincere.  They 
had  fought  in  her  battles,  and  rejoiced  in  her  triumphs. 
They  gloried,  too,  in  the  rights  of  English  freemen,  and  were 
determined  that  these  rights  should  flourish  in  the  new  land 
to  which  they  had  been  transplanted. 

One  of  these  rights,  best  known  and  valued,  was  that  of 
not  being  taxed  without  their  own  consent.  Once,  during 
Sir  Robert  Walpole's  administration,  a  suggestion  was  made 
to  levy  a  tax  on  the  American  colonies.  "  He  who  shall 
propose  it  will  be  a  much  bolder  man  than  I  am,"  was  the 
wise  statesman's  reply.  And  in  the  days  of  Walpole,  the 
colonies  were  far  less  capable  of  resisting  than  in  1765.  But 
in  1765  the  bolder  man  was  found.  In  that  year,  Sir  George 
Grenville,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  king,  not  only  proposed, 
but  carried  through  parliament,  an  act  imposing  a  stamp  duty 
on  the  North  American  colonies, — colonies  unrepresented  in 
the  parliament  of  England. 

Sir  George  Grenville  had  retired  from  office,  when  news 
came  across  the  waters  that  the  indignant  colonies,  from 
Massachusetts  to  Georgia,  had,  with  one  consent,  resisted  this 
unjust  attack  upon  their  English  rights  and  liberties.  When 
the  announcement  was  made,  Pitt,  now  Earl  of  Chatham,  rose 
in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  exclaimed:  "I  rejoice 

1766.  .  .  '  •' 

that  America  has  resisted.     Three  millions  of  people 
BO  dead  to  all  the  feelings  of  liberty  as  voluntarily  to  submit 


GEORGE   III.  331 

to  be  skves,  would  have  been  fit  instruments  to  make  slaves 
of  the  rest." 

The  Stamp  Act  was  repealed,  but  the  right  of  taxation  was 
still  claimed,  and  in  the  following  year  duties  were  laid  upon 
tea  and  various  articles  imported  into  the  American 
colonies.  During  the  next  nine  years,  acts  most 
unjust  in  themselves,  and  irritating  to  the  Americans,  were 
passed  in  the  British  parliament.  The  colonists  were  roused 
to  rebellion. 

In  April  of  the  year  1775,  General  Glage,  governor  of  the 
colony  of  Massachusetts,  sent  from  Boston  a  body  of  British 
soldiers  to  seize  stores  of  powder  which  the  colonists  had 
collected  at  Concord,  a  place  about  sixteen  miles  from  Boston. 
As  the  soldiers  passed  through  the  village  of  Lexington,  they 
found  the  Minute  Men  gathered  on  the  common  to  oppose 
their  march.  The  soldiers  fired  upon  the  colonial  militia. 
It  was  the  opening  scene  in  the  eight  years'  war  of  independ- 
ence. In  June  followed  the  battle  of  Bunker's  Hill,  and  the 
American  Revolution  fairly  began. 

In  the  ensuing  year,  July  4th,  1776,  the  last  bond  of 
political  union  between  England  and  her  American  colonies 
was  broken.  The  voice  of  the  latter  went  forth  in  the  ever- 
memorable  Declaration  of  Independence,  that  "  these  united 
colonies  are  and  of  right  ought  to  be  free  and  independent 
states,  and  that  they  are  absolved  from  all  allegiance  to  the 
British  crown." 

For  seven  years  England  refused  to  acknowledge  this  inde- 
pendence, and  troops  were  sent  over  to  force  the  colonists 
into  submission.  But  the  measures  of  the  infant  republic 
were  guided  by  true  and  able  counsellors,  and  for  the  com- 
mander of  her  soldiers  she  had  chosen,  in  General  Washington, 
one  of  the  wisest  and  best  men  the  world  has  ever  seen. 
Then,  too,  amid  even  the  darkest  reverses  of  the  contest,  the 
spirit  of  the  people  remained  faithful  to  the  Declaration  of 
Independence. 

The  first  years  of  the  war,  although  marked  by  some  sue- 


iioZ  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

cesses,  were^  on  the  whole,  disastrous  to  the  colonies.  But  on 
the  IGth  of  October,  1777,  a  British  army  under  General 
Burgoyne  capitulated  to  the  Americans  on  the  plains  of 
Saratoga,  and  the  result  of  this  important  victory  was  to  win 
for  the  struggling  colonies  the  alliance  of  France.  At  the 
end  of  four  more  years  of  varying  success,  in  the  contest 
between  England  and  her  colonies,  another  British  army, 
commanded  by  Lord  Cornwallis,  surrendered  to  the  united 
forces  of  the  United  States  and  France,  at  the  battle  of 
Yorktown.  This  event,  which  took  place  on  the  19th  of 
October,  1781,  was,  in  fact,  the  conclusion  of  the  war. 

The  conduct  of  the  ministry  towards  the  American  colonies 
had  been  censured  by  a  strong  party  in  parliament  during  the 
entire  struggle.  In  June,  1781,  a  motion  was  made  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  "  that  his  majesty's  ministers  ought  im- 
mediately to  take  every  possible  measure  for  concluding  peace 
with  our  American  colonies."  This  motion  was  ably  defended 
by  William  Pitt,  the  youthful  son  of  the  great  orator  and 
statesman  who,  in  17C5,  had  so  strongly  censured  the  taxing 
of  the  colonies.  By  the  year  1782,  the  war  had  become  so 
unpopular,  that  the  minister.  Lord  North,  resigned.  A  new 
Whig  ministry  succeeded,  and  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded, 
by  which  the  independence  of  the  United  States  of 

1783.       "^  ^ 

America  was  acknowledged. 

In  the  treaty  of  Paris,  signed  September,  1783,  England 
by  no  means  resigned  all  her  possessions  in  America.  The 
country  whose  independence  she  acknowledged  stretches  from 
the  river  St.  Lawrence  and  the  great  lakes  on  the  north,  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  on  the  south.  Beyond  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  United  States,  still  lie  the  vast  possessions 
of  British  America,  including  the  valuable  island  of  New- 
foundland. 

When  Mr.  Adams,  the  first  minister  sent  from  the  United 
States  of  America  to  the  court  of  St.  James,  appeared  in  the 
presence  of  the  king,  his  majesty  said  to  him:  ''I  was  the 
last  man  in  the  kingdom,  sir,  to  consent  to  the  independence 


GEORGE   III.  333 

of  America ;  but,  now  it  is  granted,  I  shall  be  the  last  man 
in  the  world  to  sanction  a  violation  of  it." 

The  war  as  conducted  in  x\merica  had  been  unfortunate  for 
England,  but  in  Europe,  where  she  was  contending  against 
France  and  Spain,  the  closing  year  of  the  contest  was  marked 
by  the  defence  of  G-ibraltar,  one  of  the  bravest  and  noblest 
achievements  ever  recorded  in  the  annals  of  war. 

The  recovery  of  this  strong  fortress  had  for  years  been  the 

constant  hope  and  aim  of  the  Spaniard.      Again  and  again 

had  it  been  attempted,  but  the  firm  old  rock,  and  the  firm 

hearts  upon  it,  had  defied  every  attack.     At  length,  in  the 

summer  of  the  year  1782,  after  the  fortress  had  been  in  a 

Since   ^^^^®  ^^  sicgc  for  three  years,  vast  preparations  were 

July,   made  for  an  assault,  before  which  it  was  deemed  that 

Gibraltar  must  inevitably  fall. 

Forty  thousand  French  and  Spaniards  were  assembled  for 
the  land  attack.  In  the  bay  floated  a  formidable  fleet.  Ten 
huge  floating  batteries,  made  fire-proof,  as  the  besiegers  fondly 
believed,  and  armed  with  two  hundred  and  twelve  brass  guns, 
threw  bomb-shells  into  the  fortress,  whilst  one  thousand  pieces 
of  artillery  thundered  against  the  rock.  *'  Is  it  taken  ?"  was 
the  first  question  asked  by  the  Spanish  king  each  morning  on 
awaking.  ''  Not  yet,"  was  the  daily  repeated  reply.  "  Well ! 
but  it  must  soon  be  ours/'  was  the  response  of  the  confident 
monarch. 

To  resist  this  mighty  array,  one  of  the  greatest  ever  brought 
against  a  single  fortress,  there  were  but  seven  thousand 
English  soldiers,  coniimanded  by  General  Eiliot,  and  in  the 
bay  a  single  brigade  of  gun-boats,  under  Captain  Curtis. 

On  the  morning  of  the  13th  of  September  were  seen  crowds 
of  Spaniards  assembled  on  the  hills  which  surround  Gibraltar. 
From  this  natural  amphitheatre  they  gazed  upon  a  scene  of 
intense  and  fearful  interest.  By  nine  o'clock,  the  enemies' 
fleet  came  within  gun-shot  of  the  walls  of  the  fortress,  and  a 
fire  was  opened  upon  it,  which  was  soon  returned.  Four 
hundred  pieces  of  heavy  artillery  made  the  hills  resound. 


334  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

All  day  long  the  firing  was  kept  up,  but  early  in  the  evening 
the  hearts  of  the  assailants  failed  them,  for  the  red-hot  shot 
from  the  garrison  had  set  the  ships  on  fire,  and  by  midnight 
**  the  only  flashes  from  the  floating  batteries  were  the  flames 
that  were  consuming  them."  At  five  o'clock  on  the  morning 
of^the  14th,  one  of  these  huge  constructions  blew  up  with  a 
fearful  explosion,  and  a  second  soon  shared  the  same  fate. 

"What  followed  on  the  part  of  the  conquerors,"  says  a 
narrator,  "  is  become  a  household  word — a  touching  and  a 
sacred  tale,  which  two  generations  of  Englishmen  have  learned 
in  the  cradle,  and  which  succeeding  generations  will  tell  to 
their  children,  as  the  best  exemplification  of  the  axiom,  that 
the  bravest  are  ever  the  most  merciful."  On  shore,  General 
Elliot  ordered  the  firing  to  cease,  whilst  the  noble  crew  of 
Captain  Curtis,  those  few  but  gallant  spirits,  dashed  among 
the  burning  wrecks,  to  save,  not  their  own  men,  but  the 
drowning,  burning  Spaniards,  who,  clinging  to  spars,  or  still 
on  the  blazing  decks,  were  exposed  to  a  fearful  death.  From 
the  flames  and  from  the  waves,  two  hundred  and  fifty  were 
rescued  by  the  intrepidity  of  this  noble  enemy. 

The  French  and  Spanish  navy  was  still  formidable,  and 
they  hoped  that  by  intercepting  supplies  to  the  garrison, 
they  might  yet  compel  Gibraltar  to  surrender.  This  hope 
vanished  when  Admiral  Lord  Howe,  on  the  11th  October, 
sailed  through  the  straits,  and  a  few  days  later  landed  stores 
and  troops  within  the  devoted  fortress. 

The  hopeless  siege  was  continued,  but  with  little  spirit  on 
the  part  of  the  Spaniards,  until  the  peace  was  signed.  From 
the  rock  of  Gibraltar,  at  the  proud  height  of  fourteen  hun- 
dred and  thirty-seven  English  feet,  the  flag  of  Great  Britain 
still  waves  over  those  narrow  straits,  the  key  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, which  she  has  so  bravely  won,  and  so  nobly  guarded. 
The  year  succeeding  the  treaty,  William  Pitt, 
second  son  of  the  Earl  of  Chatham,  became  prime 
minister.  He  was  only  in  the  twenty-fifth  year  of  his  age 
when  he  thus  assumed  the  government  of  the  country.    With 


GEORGE    III.  835 

great  ability  and  success  he  guided  the  hehn  of  state  for 
Beventeen  years ;  through  a  period,  too,  so  eventful  and 
perilous  to  England,  that  his  administration  almost  eclipses 
that  of  his  illustrious  father.  The  elder  Pitt,  created,  in 
1766,  Earl  of  Chatham,  had,  in  the  year  1778,  been  com- 
mitted to  an  honored  tomb  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Questions. — When  and  at  what  age  did  George  III.  ascend  the 
throne  ? — Describe  his  character. — Relate  the  circumstances  which 
led  to  his  marriage. — What  was  the  position  of  Pitt  at  this  time  ? — 
What  victories  had  been  gained  ? — Why  was  the  war  opposed  ? — By 
whom? — Relate  the  conduct  of  France  which  delayed  the  peace. — 
What  caused  the  resignation  of  Pitt  ? — Relate  the  occurrences  which 
followed  his  resignation. — To  what  did  these  lead  ? — What  is  re- 
marked of  the  treaty  of  Paris  ? 

Mention  the  two  distinguishing  acts  of  Grenville's  administration. 
— Relate  the  account  given  of  Wilkes. — Describe  the  position  and  ' 
character  of  the  English  colonies  in  America  at  this  time. — What 
right  did  they  especially  value  ? — By  what  act  was  this  right  vio- 
lated?— Describe  the  effect  produced  by  it  in  the  colonies. — How 
did  Pitt  regard  their  resistance? — Relate  the  conduct  of  government 
towards  the  colonies  during  the  next  nine  years. — What  was  the 
result  ? 

State  the  occurrences  jvhich  began  the  Revolutionary  war. — When 
and  by  what  act  was  the  political  connection  between  the  two 
countries  severed  ? — Describe  the  condition  of  the  republic  during 
this  war. — Mention  the  result  of  the  battle  of  Saratoga. — When  and 
by  what  battle  was  the  contest  terminated  ? — How  had  the  conduct 
of  the  government  been  regarded  by  parliament  ? — Relate  the  cir- 
cumstances which  led  to  the  peace. — Describe  the  provisions  of  the 
treaty. — Describe  the  reception  of  the  American  minister  at  the 
English  court. 

With  what  enemies  on  the  continent  was  England  contending  ? — 
Give  an  account  of  the  siege  of  Gibraltar. — State  its  result. — Name 
and  describe  the  prime  minister  who  came  into  office  in  1784. 


336  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 


CHAPTER  LVII. 

THE   ENGLISH    IN    INDIA. 

BRITISH  CONQUESTS — THE  RULE  OF  THE  EAST  INDIA  COMPANY — WARREN 
HASTINGS — HIS  CAREER  IN  INDIA — HIS  I.MPEACHMENT  AND  TRIAL  IN 
ENGLAND — INDIA    AT   THE    CLOSE    OF    THIS    PERIOD. 

Although  England  during  this  period  had  lost  her  colo- 
nies in  America,  in  the  opposite  quarter  of  the  globe  she  had 
in  the  same  years  been  gaining  an  empire.  The  foundation 
of  the  great  power  of  the  English  in  India  had  been  laid  by 
the  victories  of  Olive,  Sir  Eyre  Coote,  Major  Munro,  and 
other  commanders;  by  arbitrary  exactions;  by  treaties  made 
with  Indian  princes  greatly  to  the  advantage  of  the  Company, 
and  by  intimidation  and  conquest  when  these  treaties  were 
violated.  In  all  these  transactions  there  existed  no  small 
amount  of  that  injustice  and  oppression  which  the  strong  are 
ever  apt  to  exercise  towards  the  weak. 

At  various  times  the  state  of  Indian  affairs  was  discussed  in 
parliament,  and  bills  brought  in  to  restrain  the  Eaat  India 
Company,  especially  in  the  acquisition  of  territory,  and  in  the 
exercise  of  legislative  and  executive  power.  In  the  year 
1773,  a  bill  passed  in  parliament,  by  which  a  court  of  justice 
was  established  in  Bengal,  consisting  of  judges  appointed  by 
the  crown.  The  same  bill  also  provided  for  the  appointment 
of  a  governor-general  of  India,  with  four  counsellors,  to  be 
nominated  in  the  first  instance  by  parliament,  but  at  the  end 
of  five  years  by  the  court  of  directors  of  the  East  India 
Company,  subject,  however,  to  the  approbation  of  the  crown. 

Under  this  act,  there  was  appointed  for  India  a  ruler  whose 
character  and  achievements  were   as  remarkable  as 

1770. 

those  of  Clive,  and  who,  like  him,  devoted  all  his 
energies  to  maintain  and  increase  English  supremacy  in  the 
East.      This  was  Warren    Hastings.      He  claimed   descent 


THE   ENGLISH    IN    INDIA.  ooT 

from  the  Danish  Viking  of  that  name,  who,  in  Alfred's  time, 
had  ravaged  England.  He  went  to  India  as  a  writer  in  the 
Company's  service,  and  rose  by  his  talents  to  the  post  of 
ITT*,  governor-general.  The  dauntless  character  and  un- 
scrupulous conduct  of  the  merchant's  clerk  did  not 
belie  his  descent  from  the  illustrious  sea-king  of  old. 

The  position  of  Hastings  as  governor-general  of  India  was 
one  of  great  temptation  and  difficulty.  His  object  was  to 
maintain  the  supremacy  of  England  against  a  combination 
of  enemies,  French  and  natives,  and  to  approve  himself  to  the 
board  of  directors  of  the  East  India  Company  at  home.  This 
Company,  at  the  distance  of  fifteen  thousand  miles,  either 
could  not,  or  would  not,  understand,  that,  in  order  to  obtain 
the  large  commercial  profits  which  they  expected,  the  native 
population  must  be  robbed  or  oppressed.  Whilst,  therefore, 
they  urged  that  the  Hindoos  should  be  kindly  and  justly 
dealt  with,  they  at  the  same  time  demanded  that  more  money 
should  be  sent  to  England.  The  governor-general  found  it 
impossible  to  obey  both  these  commands,  and,  to  use  the 
words  of  Macaulay,  ^'  being  forced  to  disobey  them  in  some- 
thing, he  had  to  consider  what  kind  of  disobedience  they 
would  most  readily  pardon ;  and  he  correctly  judged  that  the 
safest  course  would  be  to  neglect  the  sermons,  and  find  the 
rupees." 

This  led  him  into  acts  of  cruelty  and  injustice.     He  seized 

two  provinces  belonging  to  the  Great  Mogul,  and  sold  them 

1773     ^^^  ^  large  sum  to  the  nabob  of  Oude.     Then,  in 

and  consideration  of  another  large  sum,  he  sold  the  ser- 
vices of  the  English  troops  to  the  same  nabob,  to 
enable  the  latter  to  conquer  a  brave,  free,  and  happy  people 
in  the  vale  of  Rohilcund,  and  subject  them  to  his  own  miser- 
able rule.  Some  years  later  Hastings  committed  that  which 
in  the  eyes  of  the  Hindoos  was  a  far  greater  crime.  On  the 
banks  of  the  Ganges  stands  the  city  of  Benares."  It  is  as 
sacred  in  the  eyes  of  the  Brahmin  worshippers  of  India,  as  is 
Jerusalem  to  the  devout  Jew,  and  Mecca  to  the  followers  of 
29  Y 


338  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

Mohammed.  Its  splendid  temples,  its  jewelled  shrines,  its 
graceful  minarets,  the  flights  of  marble  steps  leading  down 
to  the  sacred  stream,  the  consecrated  bulls  and  apes  which 
thronged  the  streets  or  clung  to  the  temples,  were  objects 
of  time-honored  veneration  throughout  India.  Besides  the 
costly  offerings  of  religion,  commerce  had  enriched  this  favored 
city.  "  In  its  bazaars  the  muslins  of  Bengal  and  the  sabres 
of  Oude  were  mingled  with  the  jewels  of  Golconda  and  the 
shawls  of  Cashmere."      Warren   Hastings  was  in   need   of 

money.     His  was  the  hand  by  which  might  made. 

right,  and,  in  defiance  of  the  horror  which  such  a 
deed  awakened,  he  plundered  the  holy  city  of  Benares. 

Whilst  these  transactions  were  going  on  in  Bengal,  the 
attention  of  the  governor-general  was  suddenly  demanded  in 
another  quarter.  Hyder-Ali,  the  famous  Mohammedan  chief- 
tain of  Mysore,  had  burst  upon  the  plains  of  the  Carnatic. 
With  an  army  of  ninety  thousand  men,  and  the  powerful 
co-operation  of  the  French,  he  threatened  to  drive  the  English 
jygj  from  Southern  India.  Hastings  raised  an  army,  gave 
to       it  in  command  of  the  venerable  old  soldier.  Sir  Eyre 

Coote,  who  drove  back  the  bold  invader,  and  restored 
to  the  English  the  presidency  of  Madras.  This  war  had 
drained  the  governor-generars  treasury,  and  the  wealth  gained 
by  the  plunder  of  Benares  was  not  sufficient  to  replenish  it. 
To  obtain,  therefore,  anotlier  supply,  he  robbed  two  Indian 
princesses,  the  mother  and  grandmother  of  the  nabob  of  Oude. 
These  aged  women  were  imprisoned  in  their  palace,  until, 
half  famished,  they  consented  to  give  their  rapacious  gaoler 
one  million  two  hundred  thousand  pounds. 

By  such  means  did  Warren  Hastings  obtain  the  large 
revenue  requisite  to  carry  on  the  expenses  of  his  Indian 
government.  In  February,  1785,  the  governor-general  re- 
signed his  office,  and  embarked  for  England.  Notwithstand- 
ing these  glaring  instances  of  oppression  and  wrong  on  the 
part  of  Hastings,  they  by  no  means  marked  the  general  cha- 
racter of  his  administration.     This  had,  in  fact,  been  so  wise 


THE   ENGLISH    IN    INDIA.  339 

and  beneficent,  that  lie  left  India  admired  and  regretted  by 
the  natives,  by  the  servants  of  the  East  India  Company,  and 
by  the  army. 

Three  years  later  Warren  Hastings  stood  before  the  high 

court  of  parliament  assembled  in  Westminster  Hall, 

and  listened  to  the  following  impeachment  from  the 

lips  of  Edmund  Burke,  one  of  the  most  brilliant  orators  that 

England  has  ever  produced. 

"  Ordered  by  the  Commons, 

"  I  impeach  Warren  Hastings,  Esquire,  of  high  crimes  and 
misdemeanors. 

"  I  impeach  him  in  the  name  of  the  Commons  of  Great 
Britain,  in  parliament  assembled,  whose  parliamentary  trust 
he  has  betrayed. 

"  I  impeach  him  in  the  name  of  all  the  Commons  of  Great 
Britain,  whose  national  character  he  has  dishonored. 

^'  I  impeach  him  in  the  name  of  the  people  of  India,  whose 
laws,  rights,  and  liberties  he  has  subverted,  whose  properties 
he  has  destroyed,  whose  country  he  has  laid  waste  and  deso- 
late. 

"  I  impeach  him  in  the  name  and  by  virtue  of  those  eternal 
laws  of  justice  which  he  has  violated. 

''  I  impeach  him  in  the  name  of  human  nature  itself,  which 
he  has  cruelly  outraged,  injured,  and  oppressed,  in  both  sexes, 
in  every  age,  rank,  situation,  and  condition  of  life. 

"  And  I  conjure  this  high  and  sacred  court  to  let  not  these 
pleadings  be  heard  in  vain  I" 

In  the  speech  which  preceded  this  impeachment,  Burke 
drew  such  a  vivid  picture  of  the  wrongs  which  the  late 
governor-general  had  inflicted  on  the  inhabitants  of  India, 
that  "■  sobs  and  tears,  which  are  said  not  all  to  have  proceeded 
from  the  gentler  sex,  were  heard  and  seen  in  nearly  every  part 
of  the  hall."  Even  Hastings  himself  said :  "  For  half  an  hour, 
I  looked  up  at  the  orator  in  a  reverie  of  wonder ;  and  during 
that  space,  I  actually  felt  myself  the  most  culpable  man  on 
earth;"  he  adds,  "but  I  recurred  to  my  own  bosom,  and  there 
found  a  consciousness  that  consoled  me  under  all  I  heard  and 


340  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

all  I  suffered."  Such  was  the  magic  power  of  this  remarkable 
orator. 

Never  in  the  annals  of  England's  histbry,  has  there  been  a 
trial  of  such  high  and  intense  interest  as  that  of  AVarren 
Hastings.  On  the  13th  of  February,  1788,  there  were 
gathered  in  the  magnificent  old  hall  which  the  Norman 
Kufus  had  built,  the  royalty,  nobility,  talent,  and  beauty 
of  the  realm.  From  the  galleries  gazed  those  whose  united 
presence  would  alone  have  rendered  the  scene  one  of  sur- 
passing interest.  There  sat  Gribbon  the  historian,  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds  the  painter,  Gainsborough,  and  Dr.  Parr.  Mrs. 
Siddons,  the  celebrated  actress,  looked  down  upon  a  scene 
and  listened  to  words  which  dimmed  with  tears  the  eyes 
of  even  this  queen  of  tragedy.  The  trial  was  managed  by 
such  men  as  Burke,  Sheridan,  and  Fox,  whose  eloquence 
thrills  us  with  enthusiasm  even  when  read  at  this  distant  day, 
unaided  by  the  impassioned  tones  and  gestures  of  the  living 
orator. 

Nor  was  the  criminal  unworthy  of  such  a  bar.  For  twelve 
years  he  had  been  the  ruler  of  the  millions  of  India,  and  had 
rescued  and  preserved  British  power  there  in  the  hour  of  its 
greatest  peril.  During  years  in  which  England  suffered 
greater  losses  in  her  foreign  possessions  than  she  had  ever 
before  sustained,  during  the  years  which  witnessed  the 
independence  of  her  colonies  in  the  New  World,  Warren 
Hastings  preserved  and  extended  for  her  in  Asia,  an  empire 
the  most  valuable  of  all '  her  colonial  dependencies,  and  that 
which  enables  her  to  boast  that  "  on  the  dominions  of  the 
sovereign  of  Great  Britain  the  sun  never  sets." 

The  trial  of  Warren  Hastings  was  continued  in  every 
session  of  parliament  through  seven  long  years.  Of  the  one 
hundred  and  sixty  peers  who  in  gold  and  ermine  had  walked 
in  procession  to  Westminster  Hall  on  the  first  day  of  the  trial, 
only  twenty-nine  were  present  at  the  final  judgment.  Sixty 
were  in  their  graves.  Hastings  complained  that  ^'  the  arraign- 
ment had  taken  place  before  one  generation,  and  the  judg- 
ment was  pronounced  by  another."     On  the  23d  of  April, 


THE   ENGLISH   IN   INDIA.  341 

1795,  this  long  trial  was  ended,  and  the  criminal  was  pro- 
nounced "  not  guilty.'^ 

Hastings  retired  to  his  ancestral  seat  at  Daylesford,  and 
devoted  the  remaining  twenty-four  years  of  his  life  to  literary 
and  agricultural  pursuits.  He  became  a  liberal  patron  of 
education,  discoveries,  and  improvements,  especially  such  aa 
might  conduce  to  the  well-being  of  India. 

In  that  country  other  governors-general  of  ability  had  suc- 
ceeded Hastings,  and  towards  the  close  of  the  century,  the 
East  India  Company  had  become  the  predominant  power  in 
Hindostan.  The  powerful  successor  of  Hyder-Ali,  Tippoo 
Saib,  was  defeated  during  Lord  Cornwallis's  administration, 
in  the  battle  of  Seringapatam.  During  the  Marquis 
of  Wellesley's  wise  and  beneficent  rule,  Tippoo  was 
finally  conquered,  and  his  vast  kingdom  of  Mysore  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  English.  The  fierce  Mahrattas  were  sub- 
dued, French  power  annihilated,  and  British  rule  or  influence 
extended  throughout  the  peninsula. 

Questions. — Describe  the  means  by  which  the  power  of  the  Eng- 
lish in  India  had  been  established. — What  was  the  object  of  the  bills 
regarding  India? — State  the  provisions  of  the  bill  passed  in  1773. — 
Who  was  Warren  Hastings  ? — Describe  his  position  as  governor- 
general. — Narrate  the  acts  of  injustice  committed  by  him  in  India  in 
the  years  1773  and  1774. — Repeat  the  description  given  of  Benares. 
— What  was  Hastings's  conduct  towards  this  city  ? 

What  was  the  condition  of  Southern  India  at  this  time?— How  did 
the  governor-general  act  in  this  emergency? — How  did  he  defray 
the  expenses  of  this  war. — What  had  been  the  general  character 
of  Hastings's  rule  in  India? — Where  and  by  whom  was  his  impeach- 
ment read? — Recite  the  articles. — Describe  the- effect  of  Burke's 
speech. — Describe  the  audience  and  scene  at  the  time  of  the  trial. — 
State  the  benefits  which  Hastings's  administration  had  conferred  on 
England. — Repeat  the  account  given  of  the  close  of  this  trial. — 
What  was  Hastings's  subsequent  history? — Describe  the  position 
of  the  English  in  India  towards  the  close  of  the  century. — During 
whose  administrations  had  these  events  occurred  ? 
29* 


342  HISTORY   OF  ENGLAND. 

CHAPTER  LVIII. 

GEORGE   III. 

THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION  —  ITS  EFFECT  UPON  ENGLAND  —  WAR  —  VICTO- 
RIES— MUTINY  IN  THE  FLEET — CAMPEUDOWN — BATTLE  OP  THE  NILE — 
ACRE — IRELAND — THE    UNION. 

Long  before  Warren  Hastings's  trial  was  ended,  the  inte- 
rest of  the  nation  was  diverted  from  the  fate  of  an  individual 
(however  remarkable),  to  become  absorbed  in  that  of  their 
ancient  rival,  the  monarchy  of  France.  The  people  of  this 
country,  rendered  miserable  by  oppression,  rose  against  their 
1789  r^l^^s-  They  elected  a  national  assembly,  declared 
to  war  against  royalty  and  nobility,  which  they  believed 
the  source  of  all  their  sufferings,  and  finally,  after 
many  acts  of  violence,  brought  their  monarch  and  his  queen 
to  the  block. 

The  French  Revolution  produced  a  great  sensation  through- 
out England,  dividing  the  country  into  two  parties.  The 
clear-sighted  Edmund  Burke  saw  from  the  first  the  tendency 
of  its  principles,  and  the  evils  of  espousing  the  cause  of  the 
revolutionists.  "  Men,"  he  wisely  observed,  "  must  have  a 
certain  fund  of  natural  moderation  to  qualify  them  for  free- 
dom, else  it  becomes  noxious  to  themselves,  and  a  perfect 
nuisance  to  everybody  else.''  William  Pitt,  too,  although  he 
took  a  more  hopeful  view  of  this  blow  for  freedom,  refrained 
from  interfering,  in  French  affairs. 

Another  party,  headed  by  Mr.  Fox,  applauded  the  princi- 
ples of  the  French  Revolution.  To  this  party  rallied  all  the 
discontented  spirits  in  the  kingdom,  and  for  many  years  the 
English  constitution  was  in  no  small  peril.  Excited  by 
French  emissaries,  whose  motto  was  "  war  to  the  palace  and 
peace  to  the  cottage,"  the  people  in  many  places,  especially 
in  the  manufacturing  districts,  grew  turbulent,  committed 
outrages,  and  clamored  for  a  reform  in  parliament. 


GEORGE    III.  343 

The  difference  of  opinion  on  the  tendency  of  the  French 
Revolution,  and  the  consequent  duty  of  encouraging  or  op- 
posing it,  produced  violent  contentions  in  the  British  parlia- 
ment. It  severed  the  friendship  of  Fox  and  Burke,  "  which/' 
to  use  the  words  of  the  latter,  "had  stood  the  strain  of  a 
whole  lifetime.^' 

On  the  execution  of  the  French  king,  the  English 
government  remonstrated  against  the  course  taken 
by  the  revolutionists,  and  especially  protested  against  their 
introducing  their  republican  principles  into  other  countries. 
In  the  year  1793,  the  French  National  Convention  declared 
war  against  Great  Britain.  Then  commenced  the  long  and 
dreadful  contest  of  the  French  Revolution,  which  lasted,  with 
but  a  short  interval  of  peace,  through  a  period  of  more  than 
twenty  years. 

England's  victories  were  won  chiefly  on  the  sea,  whilst 
France,  especially  after  the  rise  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  re- 
mained mistress  of  the  continent. 

The  year  succeeding  the  declaration  of  the  war, 

1T94:.  "^  ... 

Admiral  Lord  Howe  gained  a  brilliant  naval  victory 
off  Brest,  on  the  French  coast.  The  moral  effect  of  this 
victory  was  felt  throughout  England.  It  roused  the  enthu- 
siasm of  the  people,  united  them  with  the  government,  and 
suppressed  in  a  great  measure  the  disaffection  excited  by 
French  revolutionary  principles. 

A  few  years  later,  the  navy  of  England,  that  strong 

arm  which  had  for  centuries  upheld  her  glory,  was 
imperilled  by  a  mutiny  which  began  in  the  Channel  fleet. 
The  pay  of  the  sailors  was  very  low.  They  received  no  more 
than  in  the  days  of  Charles  II.,  whilst  nearly  every  article  of 
life  had  doubled  in  price  since  that  time.  The  discipline  of 
the  navy,  too,  was  excessively  harsh.  These  grievances 
created  a  wide-spread  feeling  of  discontent,  and  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  15th  of  April,  1797,  when  Lord  Bridport  gave 
orders  to  the  Channel  fleet  to  prepare  for  sea,  instead  of 
obeying  the  command,  his  crew  ran  up  the  shrouds,  and  gave 
three  cheers.     These  were  answered  with  a  vigor  from  the 


344  HISTORY  OF  England. 

other  vessels,  which  proved  the  spirit  of  mutiny  to  be  general 
throughout  the  fleet. 

The  mutineers  sent  a  petition  to  the  House  of  Commons 
and  to  .the  Board  of  Admiralty,  expressing  unshaken  loyalty 
to  king  and  country,  but  stating  their  grievances,  and  de- 
manding redress.  Their  reasonable  demands  were  agreed  to 
by  the  Board  of  Admiralty.  To  reassure  them.  Lord  Howe, 
who  was  revered  and  beloved  by  the  whole  navy,  went  down 
to  the  fleet  at  Spithead,  assured  them  of  the  good  intentions 
of  the  government,  and  induced  them  to  strike  the  red  flag 
of  insurrection. 

Two  months  later,  a  still  more  formidable  mutiny  broke  out 
in  that  part  of  the  squadron  stationed  at  the  Nore.  This 
outbreak  was  headed  by  a  seaman  on  board  the  Sandwich, 
who  took  the  title  of  President  of  the  Floating  Republic. 
When  this  outbreak  occurred,  Admiral  Duncan,  with  part 
of  the  squadron,  was  blockading  the  Dutch  in  the  Texel. 
Every  vessel,  save  his  own  line-of-battle-ship  and  two  frigates, 
deserted.  With  the  firmness  of  a  true  and  noble  patriot,  the 
admiral  refused  to  give  up  the  blockade.  Gathering  his  own 
crew  around  him,  he  addressed  them  in  a  speech  of  such 
touching  eloquence,  that  they  responded  by  a  unanimous  and 
enthusiastic  promise  to  abide  by  him  iu  life  or  death. 

Meanwhile  the  mutineers,  who  had  drawn  themselves  up 
in  battle  array  across  the  Thames,  becjanc  so  unreasonable  in 
their  demands,  which  were  urged,  moreover,  in  so  threatening 
a  manner,  that  government,  despite  the  imminent  peril,  de- 
termined to  resist  them.  "  Shall  we  yield,"  exclaimed  Mr. 
Sheridan  in  parliament,  "to  mutinous  sailors?  Never!  for  in 
one  moment  we  should  extinguish  three  centuries  of  glory." 
The  buoys  were  removed  from  the  Thames,  every  precaution 
was  taken  to  prevent  the  mutinous  vessels  ascending  the  river, 
and  throughout  the  country,  merchants,  sailors,  and  soldiers 
volunteered  to  stand  by  the  government.  The  sailors  of  the 
Channel  fleet  patriotically  remonstrated  with  those  at  the 
Nore,  and  urged  them  to  return  to  duty. 

Finding  the  whole  nation  against  them,  the  spirit  of  the 


"GEORGE   III.  345 

mutineers  was  subdued.  Vessel  by  vessel  deserted  the  bad 
cause,  and  by  the  15th  of  June,  the  red  flag  had  been  struck 
throughout  the  squadron.  The  ringleader  with  several  others 
was  put  to  death.  After  the  suppression  of  this  mutiny,  the 
grievances  of  both  army  and  navy  were  carefully  redressed,  and 
the  condition  of  both  arms  of  the  service  greatly  improved. 

During  this  very  year,  a  striking  proof  of  the  true 
loyalty  of  the  fleet  was  given  by  the  victories  of  St. 
Vincent  and  Camperdown.  Admiral  Jarvis  met  the  Spanish 
fleet  ofi*  Cape  St.  Vincent  on  the  coast  of  Portugal.,  It  con- 
sisted of  twenty-seven  ships  of  the  line  and  twelve  frigates. 
Jarvis  had  but  fifteen  sail  of  the  line  and  six  frigates.  Yet 
he  boldly  attacked  the  Spanish  fleet,  and  gained  the  victory. 
In  this  engagement  Lord  Nelson  greatly  distinguished  himself. 
In  October,  1797,  a  large  Dutch  fleet  left  the  Texel,  to 
unite  with  a  French  squadron  at  Brest,  for  the  invasion  of 
Ireland.  Admiral  Duncan  intercepted  the  Dutch  ships  before 
they  had  left  the  shores  of  Holland,  and  engaging  them  off 
Camperdown,  won  a  hard-fought  but  brilliant  and  important 
victory.  This  battle,  gained  by  the  very  squadron  which  a 
few  months  before  had  been  in  open  mutiny,  spread  joy 
throughout  England.  Bonfires  and  illuminations  in  town 
and  country  testified  the  universal  enthusiasm  of  the  nation. 
Before  the  close  of  another  year,  England  again  blazed  with 
illuminations,  and  resounded  with  artillery,  in  honor  of  an- 
other splendid  victory,  won  by  Lord  Nelson  at  the  battle  of 
the  Nile. 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  then  at  the  head  of  the 
armies  of  France,  invaded  Egypt,  hoping  to  become 
master  of  that  country,  and  thence  to  strike  a  fatal  blow  at 
the  English  possessions  in  India.  Lord  Nelson,  who  had 
been  ordered  to  the  Mediterranean,  learned  at  Messina  the 
course  which  Napoleon's  fleet  had  taken,  and  started  in  pur- 
suit Nelson  sailed  in  June,  but  missed  the  French  fleet, 
and  several  weeks  elapsed  before  he  found  the  enemy  he  was 
so  eager  to  encounter.  On  the  morning  of  the  1st  of  August, 
as  Nelson's  fleet  hove  in  sight  of  the  Pharos  of  Alexandria, 


346  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

he  beheld  the  harbor  crowded  with  French  vesseli,  and  the 
tri-color  of  the  republic  floating  over  the  walls  of  the  town. 
''  Before  this  time  to-morrow/'  exclaimed  Nelson,  as  he  gazed 
upon  them,  "  I  shall  have  gained  a  peerage  or  Westminster 
Abbey." 

The  French  fleet,  forming  a  cuiTed  line,  occupied  a  strong 
position  in  Aboukir  Bay.  Nelson  determined  to  send  a  part 
of  his  squadron  between  the  enemy  and  the  shore,  and  to 
attack  with  the  rest  on  the  other  side,  thus  placing  the 
French  between  two  fires.  On  communicating  this  design  to 
one  of  his  captains,  the  latter  exclaimed :  "  If  we  succeed, 
what  will  the  world  say  ?"  "  There  is  no  '  if  in  the  case,'' 
replied  Nelson.  "  That  we  shall  succeed  is  certain  ;  who  may 
live  to  tell  the  story  is  a  very  difi"erent  question."  The 
engagement  began  at  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and 
lasted  until  midnight.  At  night  the  blaze  of  two  thousand 
pieces  of  artillery  illuminated  the  scene,  "  and  the  volumes 
of  flame  and  smoke  that  rolled  away  from  the  bay,  gave  it 
the  appearance  of  a  terrific  volcano  suddenly  bursting  forth 
m  the  midst  of  the  sea."  By  nine  o'clock  three  French 
ships  had  struck  their  colors,  two  were  dismasted,  and  flames 
were  fast  enveloping  a  third,  "  L' Orient,"  although  she  still 
made  a  brave  defence. 

On  the  burning  deck  of  that  vessel  stood  the  youthful 
Casabianca.  He  was  the  son  of  the  French  admiral,  and 
only  ten  years  of  age.  With  heroic  firmness  he  refused  to 
quit  his  post,  even  when  the  guns  had  been  abandoned,  and 

"  The  flames  that  lit  the  battle's  wreck, 
Shone  round  him  o'er  the  dead." 

A  few  moments  more,  and  those  flames  had  reached  the 
powder  magazine.  Then  followed  the  fearful  destruction  of 
the  "  Orient"  and  her  gallant  crew, 

"With  mast,  and  helm,  and  pennon  fair, 
That  well  had  borne  their  part, — 
But  the  noblest  thing  that  perished  there. 
Was  that  young  faithful  heart." 


GEORGE    III.  347 

When  the  battle  ended  at  midnight,  of  the  entire  French 
fleet,  but  four  vessels  escaped  to  carry  the  melancholy  tidings 
to  France. 

Before  the  close  of  the  action,  Nelson  was  severely  wounded. 
When  carried  below,  the  surgeon  immediately  left  the  seamen, 
to  dress  the  wounds  of  their  admiral.  ''No,^'  said  Nelson, 
^'  I  will  take  my  turn  with  my  brave  fellows."  Nor  would  he 
receive  the  surgeon's  attention  until  that  officer  had  attended 
to  all  who  had  been  previously  brought  down.  From  his 
grateful  country  Nelson  received  a  handsome  pension  and  the 
title  of  Baron  Nelson  of  the  Nile. 

The  emissaries  of  France,  by  declaring  "■  war  to  the  palace, 
and  peace  to  the  cottage,"  had  sought  to  rouse  the  middle 
and  lower  classes  against  their  rulers.  In  the  year  1798,  the 
monarch  and  ministry  of  England  gave  a  strong  proof  of 
their  reliance  on  the  loyalty  of  true  British  hearts,  by  estab- 
lishing the  volunteer  system  throughout  the  kingdom.  By 
this  system,  arms  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  one"  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand  of  the  people,  that  they  might  therewith 
defend  their  country  and  the  constitution.  These  volunteer 
corps  proved  faithful  to  the  trust  reposed  in  them.  Even  in 
the  manufacturing  towns,  where  discontents  and  clamors  for  a 
reform  of  the  constitution  had  been  most  violent,  the  volun- 
teers were  zealous  in  their  loyalty,  and  suppresseii  in  a  great 
measure  the  disturbances  which  had  prevailed. 

Napoleon's  invasion  of  Egypt,  which  was  a  province 
A*98  ^^  ^^®  Turkish  empire,  induced  the  sultan  to  declare 
war  against  him.  A  few  months  later,  being  threat- 
ened with  an  attack  from  the  Turks  by  land  and  by  sea.  Na- 
poleon formed  the  bold  design  of  crossing  the  desert  to  Syria, 
where  the  principal  army  of  the  sultan  was  assembled.  He 
hoped  to  destroy  this  army,  to  rouse  the  inhabitants  of  the 
country  against  their  rulers,  and  to  found  a  splendid  empire 
in  the  East.  Filled  with  visions  of  oriental  conquest  and 
dominion,  the  French  army  entered  the  Holy  Land.  The 
sacred  hills  and  plains  of  Galilee,  the  heights  of  Carmel,  the 


348  HISTORY    OF    ENC4LAND. 

sea  of  Gennesaret,  Nazareth,  and  Caiia*,  names  hallowed  by 
Scriptural  associations,  now  resounded  with  the  din  of  arms. 

Napoleon   laid   siege   to  Acre.     It  was   defended  by  the 
Turks,  and  in  the  Bay  of  Carmel  lay  a  small  English  fleet, 
commanded  by  Sir  Sidney  Smith.     This  trying  siege  con- 
tinued from  the  16th  of  March  to  the  7th  of  May. 

1799.  ^ 

On  the  evening  of  the  latter  day  an  Ottoman  fleet  of 
thirty  sail,  with  stores  of  ammunition  and  artillery,  anchored 
in  the  bay.  Napoleon  at  once  ordered  an  assault,  hoping  to 
take  the  town  before  relief  could  be  thrown  into  it.  This 
assault,  renewed  for  three  days,  was  made  with  all  the  energy 
of  despair.  It  was  unavailing,  and  at  last  there  fell  from 
Napoleon's  lips  the  first  order  for  retreat  which  that  successful 
general  had  ever  uttered.  He  left  on  the  Syrian  plains  three 
thousand  of  his  brave  men — there,  too,  lay  buried  his  glorious 
visions  of  oriental  empire.  With  heavy  hearts  the  remnant 
of  his  army  retraced  their  march  to  Egypt,  through  the  burn- 
ing sands  of  the  desert.  Of  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  Napoleon 
often  said :  "  That  man  made  me  miss  my  destiny." 

The  domestic  history  of  Great  Britain  during  the  closing 
years  of  this  century  was  hardly  more  peaceful  than  her 
foreign  relations.  The  principal  causes  of  disturbance  arose 
in  Ireland.  That  country,  ever  since  its  conquest  in  the  days 
of  Henry  Plantagenet,  had  been  as  a  thorn  in  the  side  of  its 
English  neighbor.  But  it  was  the  unjust  and  cruel  policy  of 
the  conqueror  which  had  made  it  so.  On  every  fresh  con- 
quest the  fair  domains  of  Ireland  were  wrested  from  the 
native  owner,  and  bestowed  upon  the  foreign  lord.  The  new 
proprietor,  instead  of  dwelling  on  his  "estate,  caring  for  his 
tenantry,  and  becoming  Irish  in  his  sympathies  and  interests, 
returned  to  England,  leaving  an  agent  to  collect  rents  and 
raise  as  much  money  as  he  could  from  the  estate.  These 
agents  oppressed  the  peasantry,  and  thus  awakened  a  feeling 
of  hostility  towards  the  absent  proprietor.  Then,  too,  there 
lingered  in  the  land  a  great  number  of  the  old  disinherited 
families,  who  kept  up  in  the  minds  of  their  former  dependants 


GEORGE   III.  349 

a  feeling  of  indignation  against  the  Saxon  invaders.  When 
the  Reformation  took  place,  England  became  Protestant,  whilst 
Ireland  adhered  to  the  Komish  Church.  Thus  was  added  the 
bitter  element  of  religious  animosity  to  the  causes  of  hatred 
which  already  existed. 

In  the  year  1791,  "  The  Society  of  United  Irishmen"  was 
established.  They  declared  themselves  "  a  union  of  Irishmen 
of  every  religious  persuasion,  in  order  to  obtain  a  complete 
reform  of  the  legislature,  founded  on  the  principles  of  civil, 
political,  and  religious  liberty.''  To  this  association  belonged 
many  who  were  animated  by  pure  and  ardent  patriotism,  and 
many  among  them  were  Protestants.  The  majority  of  the 
Protestants  in  Ireland,  however,  especially  of  the  lower  orders, 
united  in  an  opposing  society,  called  "  Orangemen,"  for  the 
upholding  of  Protestant  and  English  supremacy  Both  asso- 
ciations committed  acts  of  violence  and  depredation,  spreading 
disorder  and  misery  throughout  Ireland. 

On  the  breaking  out  of  the  French  Revolution,  the  Irish, 
excited  by  hopes  of  throwing  off  the  galling  yoke  of  England, 
listened  eagerly  to  French  offers  of  assistance.  The  views  of 
the  "  Society  of  United  Irishmen"  now  changed  materially. 
They  sought  to  sever  the  national  connection  with  England, 
to  establish  a  republic,  restore  the  Romish  religion,  and  give 
back  to  the  disinherited  Celt  his  long-forfeited  lands.  Two 
expeditions  from  France,  intended  for  the  invasion  of  Ireland, 
were  destroyed  :  the  first  in  1796,  by  a  storm  in  Bantry  Bay, 
and  the  second  before  it  had  left  the  shores  of  France,  by  the 
victory  of  Camperdown.  In  Ireland,  however,  a  formidable 
insurrection  broke  out,  and  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
men  were  in  arms.  The  leaders  were  discovered  and  seized, 
and  after  a  few  encounters  in  the  county  of  Wexford,  the 
insurgents  laid  down  their  arms,  and  submitted  to 
the  government. 

To  reconcile,  if  possible,  the  divided  interests  of  England 
and  Ireland,  to  prevent  the  invasion  of  the  latter  island  by 
France,  and  to  put  an  end  to  the  frightful  disorders  pre- 
vailing there,  the  English  government  proposed  to  unite  the 
30 


350  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

two  countries  under  one  parliament.  This  measure  met  with 
violent  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  great  body  of  the  Irish 
people.  Curran  and  Grattan,  the  most  eloquent  orators  of 
their  day,  pleaded  earnestly  against  it,  as  subversive  of  the 
dignity  and  liberty  of  their  country.  The  bill  for  the  union, 
which  had  passed  in  the  English  parliament,  was  agreed  to  in 
the  Irish  House  of  Lords,  and  the  Commons  were  won  over  by 
bribery. 

Thus,  in  the  last  year  of  the  century,  the  union  of  England 
and  Ireland  was  effected.  The  Irish  parliament  ceased  to 
exist,  and  twenty-eight  peers  and  one  hundred  commoners 
represent  that  kingdom  in  the  national  council  of  the  realm 
Henceforth  the  British  Isles  assumed  the  title  of  "  The 
United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland." 

Questions — Relate  the  events  which  had  taken  place  in  France 
from  1789-93. — Repeat  the  views  expressed  by  Burke  on  the  French 
Revolution. — Describe  the  party  which  favored  this  cause. — What 
remonstrances  were  made  to  France  by  the  English  government  ? — 
When  and  by  whom  was  war  declared? — What  naval  victory  was 
gained  in  1794? — Describe  the  condition  of  the  English  navy. — 
Give  an  account  of  the  mutiny  in  the  Channel  fleet. — Describe  the 
mutiny  at  the  Nore. — How  did  the  danger  terminate? 

Describe  the  battle  of  St.  Vincent. — That  of  Camperdown. — Who 
invaded  Egypt? — With  what  object? — Relate  the  efi'orts  of  Nelson  to 
find  the  French. — Describe  the  battle  of  Aboukir. — Relate  the  story 
of  Casabtanca. — State  the  result  of  the  battle. — Describe  Nelson's 
conduct. — Give  some  account  of  the  volunteer  system. — What  were 
Napoleon's  designs  and  operations  towards  the  close  of  1798? — 
Describe  the  siege  and  relief  of  Acre. — Describe  Napoleon's  defeat 
and  its  consequences. 

State  the  treatment  which  Ireland  for  centuries  had  experienced 
from  England. — When  was  the  *'  Society  of  United  Irishmen"  found- 
ed?— What  objects  did  it  profess? — Describe  the  rival  society. — 
What  hopes  were  excited  in  Ireland  by  the  French  Revolution  ? — 
What  now  became  the  designs  of  "The  United  Irishmen?" — Men- 
tion the  fate  of  the  French  expeditions  to  Ireland. — What  was  the 
result  of  the  insurrection  of  1798  ? — What  proposition  was  made  by 
the  English  government  ? — Relate  the  history  and  final  result  of 
this  bill. — What  is  henceforth  the  proper  designation  of  the  British 
Islands  ? 


ENGLAND  DURING   THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY.      351 

CHAPTER  LIX. 

CONDITION  OP  ENGLAND  DURING  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

RELIGION — LITERATURE — DISTINGUISHED    WRITERS. 

During  no  period  perhaps  since  the  Reformation  was 
''  pure  and  undefiled''  reHgion  at  so  low  an  ebb  as  during  the 
first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  clergy  of  the 
Established  Church  were  in  many  instances  worldly-minded 
men,  devoted  to  fox-hunting  and  the  pleasures  of  the  table. 
Among  the  dissenters  great  coldness  and  formality  prevailed, 
and  the  laity  generally,  as  might  be -expected,  "when  no  man 
cared  for  their  souls,"  were  corrupt  in  their  principles  and 
vicious  in  their  lives. 

From  this  low  estate,  religion  was  revived  in  England,  by 
the  preaching  of  two  remarkable  men — Greorge  Whitfield  and 
John  Wesley.  The  movement  begun  by  them  soon  exerted 
an  awakening  and  salutary  influence  upon  the.  Established 
Church. 

Whitfield  and  Wesley  had  been  members  of  the  same  college 
at  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  were  distinguished  whilst 
there  for  purity  of  morals  and  for  their  religious  character. 
They,  with  a  few  other  kindred  spirits,  were  so  strict  and 
regular  in  the  observance  of  religious  duties,  that  they  ac- 
quired the  nickname  of  "  Methodists,"  an  appellation  which 
was  subsequently  adopted  by  the  society  of  which  they  were 
the  founders.  They  visited  America,  where  Wesley  became 
much  impressed  by  the  religious  establishments  of  the  Mora- 
vians who  had  settled  in  Georgia.  Whitfield  went  to  New 
England,  became  acquainted  with  the  views  of  the  Puritans, 
and  adopted  many  of  their  doctrines. 

As  early  as  1739,  Whitfield  began  the  practice  of  preaching 
in  the  open  air.  At  Bristol  the  colliers,  drawn  from  the  dark 
and  dismal  coal-pits,  gathered  round  him,  under  the  blue 
canopy  of  heaven,  sometimes  to  the  number  of  twenty  thou- 


352  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

sand.  Whitfield  afterwards  preached  m  the  vicinity  of  Lon- 
don, at  Moorfields,  at  Kennington  Common,  and  Blackheath, 
to  congregations  of  forty  thousand. 

Wesley,  too,  on  his  return  from  America,  finding  the 
churches  of  the  Establishment  closed  against  him,  and  no 
room  sufficiently  large  to  hold  those  who  flocked  to  his  ser- 
vices, "  determined  to  do  the  same  thing  in  England  which" 
he  "  had  often  done  in  a  warmer  climate — namely,  to  preach 
in  the  open  air."  At  first  he  hesitated  about  adopting  this 
course,  but  afterwards  concluded  that  "  our  Lord's  sermon 
on  the  mount  was  a  pretty  remarkable  precedent  for  field- 
preaching,"  and  one  that  he  might  safely  follow. 

Wesley  was  a  clergyman  of  the  church  of  England,  and 
became  greatly  displeased  on  learning  that  Thomas  Maxfield, 
a  layman  whom  he  had  employed  to  watch  over  and  pray  with 
his  congregation  at  Moorfields,  whilst  he  was  ministering 
elsewhere,  had  commenced  preaching.  Returning  hastily  to 
London,  Wesley  exclaimed  to  his  mother:  "So,  Thomas  iMax- 
field  is  turned  preacher,  I  find !"  His  mother  in  reply  told 
him,  it  was  .the  Lord's  work,  and  begged  him  not  to  oppose  it. 
Wesley,  after  hearing  Maxfield,  became  convinced  that  good 
might  be  done  in  this  way,  and  consented  that  laymen  should 
preach,  but  not  administer  the  sacraments.  Thus  originated 
the  practice  of  lay-preaching. 

Another  peculiarity  of  the  Methodists,  that  of  classes  and 
class-leaders,  arose  from  the  following  circumstance :  on  at- 
tempting to  raise  money  to  build  a  meeting-house,  the  poverty 
of  the  brethren  was  found  to  be  a  serious  obstacle.  At  length 
one  said  :  "  Put  eleven  of  the  poorest  with  me, — I  will  call  on 
each  of  them  weekly,  and  if  they  give  nothing,  I  will  give  for 
them  as  well  as  'for  myself."  This  gave  rise  to  the  division 
of  the  brethren  into  classes,  with  a  leader,  who,  in  course  of 
time,  instead  of  calling  on  each  member  at  his  own  house, 
assembled  them  together  weekly,  for  the  purposes  of  mutual 
prayer,  exhortation,  and  supervision. 

Wesley,  although  a  clergyman  of  the  Establishment,  found 
himself  denied  the  church  pulpits,  on  account  of  his  pecu- 


ENGLAND    DURING    THE    EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY.       353 

liarities.  This  circumstance  originated  itinerancy,  another 
distinguishing  feature  of  Methodism.  Wesley  "and  his 
brethren  wandered  into  every  section  of  England,  from  the 
Northumbrian  moorlands  to  the  innermost  depths  of  the  Cor- 
nish mines,  in  the  most  tumultuous  cities,  and  in  the  most 
unfrequented  hamlets."  At  Wesley's  death,  there  were 
seventy-one  thousand  Methodists  in  England,  and  forty-eight 
thousand  in  America. 

Whitfield,  aided  by  the  influence  of  Selina,  Countess  of 
Huntingdon,  awakened  an  interest  among  the  higher  circles 
of  society,  whilst  the  Methodism  of  Wesley  found  its  warmest 
welcome  among  the  working  classes.  It  was  truly,  in  many 
respects,  what  it  has  often  been  called,  "  the  poor  man's 
religion."  The  powerful  and  eloquent  preaching  of  these 
men,  together  with  the  labors  of  Watts,  Doddridge,  and 
others,  was  the  means,  in  God's  hand,  of  producing  a  purer 
and  higher  tone  of  religion  throughout  England,  and  we  soon 
find  in  the  annals  of  its  church  history,  such  men  as  Fletcher, 
the  good  vicar  of  Madeley,  Romaine,  the  elder  Venn,  John 
Newton,  and  Rowland  Hill. 

At  the  close  of  the  preceding  century  laws  extremely  severe 
'had  been  passed  against  the  Roman  Catholics.  A  reward  of 
one  hundred  pounds  was  ofi"ered  to  any  one  apprehending  a 
priest  in  the  act  of  saying  mass,  or  exercising  any  other  office 
of  religion  within  the  realm.  No  Roman  Catholic  was  allowed 
to  keep  a  school,  or  in  any  way  to  employ  himself  in  the  edu- 
cation of  youth.  If  a  Roman  Catholic  youth,  on  attaining 
tihe  age  of  eighteen,  should  refuse  to  abjure  his  religioD,  he 
was  liable  to  be  disinherited,  and  the  next  of  kin,  being  a 
Protestant,  might  seize  his  property. 

These  oppressive  laws,  although  not  always  strictly  enforced, 
gave  rise  to  much  suffering  among  a  large  population  in  the 
realm,  and  especially  in  the  sister  kingdom  of  Ireland.  Nearly 
a  hundred  years,  however,  passed  before  they  were  rescinded 
by  the  passage  of  the  first  Catholic  Relief  Bill.  This  bill, 
passed  in  1778,  allowed  Roman  Catholics  to  engage  in  educa- 
tion without  being  liable  to  imprisonment,  to  exercise  the 
30*  Z 


354  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

rites  of  their  religion,  and  to  enjoy  their  property.  They 
were  still  debarred  the  right  of  holding  any  civil  office,  and 
many  other  privileges  of  English  subjects. 

The  concessions  of  the  Relief  Bill,  limited  as  they  were, 
met  with  some  opposition  in  England,  and  when  it  was  pro- 
posed to  extend  them  to  Scotland,  the  most  tumultuous 
excitement  broke  out  in  that  country.  A  society  was  formed 
called  "The  Protestant  Association,''  the  object  of  which  was 
to  oppose  all  relief  to  Roman  Catholics.  The  president  was 
Lord  George  Gordon,  a  fanatical  nobleman,  who  is  supposed, 
from  some  of  his  extravagances,  to  have  been  insane.  The 
"  Protestant  Association"  soon  extended  to  England,  and  an 
immense  body  of  men,  animated  by  a  spirit  of  bitter  intoler- 
ance, ranged  themselves  under  the  command  of  Lord  George. 

On  the  2d  of  June,  1780,  sixty  thousand  members  of  this 
association  assembled  in  St.  George's  Fields,  and  thence  pro- 
ceeded through  London  to  the  parliament  house,  bearing  a 
petition,  signed,  it  is  said,  with  names  or  marks  of  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  thousand  Protestants.  Entering  the  house, 
the  rabble  made  the  old  hall  of  Westminster  ring  with  their 
shouts  of  "  No  Popery  I"  "  No  Popery  !" 

The  riots  continued  during  the  week  from  the  2d  to  the 
9th  of  June,  with  ever-increasing  violence.  On  the  night  of 
the  7th,  thirty-six  fires  blazed  in  difierent  parts  of  the  city, 
whilst  the  uproar  of  the  mob  and  the  firing  of  the  military 
added  to  the  terror  of  the  scene.  At  length,  by  armed  force, 
the  rioters  were  subdued,  but  not  before  five  hundred  lives 
had  been  lost,  and  an  immense  amount  of  property  destroyeci. 

Lord  Mansfield's  beautiful  mansion  and  valuable  law-library 
fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  fury  of  the  mob.  When  this  learned 
and  aged  judge  pleaded,  a  few  days  later,  the  lawfulness  of 
employing  the  military  against  the  rioters,  he  made  a  slight 
but  touching  allusion  to  his  own  great  loss.  "I  have  founded 
my  opinion  without  consulting  my  books,"  said  he ;  adding, 
*'  Indeed,  I  have  no  books  to  consult."  These  riots,  and  the 
excited  state  of  feeling  in  Scotland,  prevented  the  extension 
of  the  Relief  Bill  to  that  country. 


ENGLAND   DURING    THE   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY.       355 

The  same  period  which  witnessed  so  low  a  state  of  religion 
and  morality  in  England,  exhibited  a  corresponding  want  of  a 
pure  and  ennobling  literature.  To  supply  this  want,  and  to 
diffuse  a  more  refined  and  Christian  tone  throughout  society, 
was  the  aim  of  those  benefactors  of  literature,  the  English 
essayists.  They  were  also  the  founders  of  periodical  litera- 
ture, their  essays  being  issued  in  small  tri-weekly  sheets,  at 
the  cost  of  a  penny  each.  These  papers  became  extremely 
popular,  and,  reproving  in  a  gentle  but  lively  manner  the 
follies  and  extravagances  of  fashionable  life,  soon  produced  a 
most  happy  effect  in  improving  the  manners  of  the  age. 
The  first  of  these  papers,  called  "The  Tatler,"  was  established 
by  Sir  Richard  Steele.  The  most  celebrated  is  "  The  Spec- 
tator,'' which  received  its  most  valuable  and  beautiful  contri- 
butions from  the  pen  of  Addison. 

Among  "the  wits  of  Queen  Anne's  reign,"  Jonathan  Swift, 
the  dean  of  St.  Patrick's,  holds  perhaps  the  first  rank  as  a 
prose  writer.  He  is  best  known  as  the  author  of  that  famous 
satire,  "  Gulliver's  Travels."  Although  an  original  and  power- 
ful writer,  his  personal  character  was  far  from  attractive. 
The  bitterness,  almost  cruelty,  of  his  satirical  writings,  indi- 
cate the  heartlessness  of  the  man.  The  last  nine  years  of  his 
life  were  passed  in  a  state  of  hopeless  insanity. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  century,  the  poet  Pope,  in  his 
beautiful  villa  of  Twickenham,  assembled  around  him  the 
most  brilliant  wits  of  his  day.  There  gathered  Swift,  Gay, 
Arbuthnot,  Parnell,  and  Prior.  To  Pope  we  are  indebted  for 
the  first  English  translation  of  Homer's  Iliad  and  Odyssey. 
He  wrote  many  elegant  and  celebrated  poems,  but,  like  Swift, 
sullied  the  genius  with  which  he  was  gifted,  by  employing  it 
in  bitter  satires  against  his  enemies  There  were  other  poets 
of  this  age  whose  writings  are  scarcely  less  beautiful  than 
Pope's,  whilst  their  personal  characters  were  far  more  winning. 
Young,  the  author  of  "Night  Thoughts;"  Thomson,  who  has 
given  Us  his  much-admired  poem  of  "The  Seasons;"  and 
Gray,  whose  beautiful  "Elegy  in  a  Country  Churchyard" 
is  so  familiar  to  all,  were  cotemporaries.     In  the  reign  of 


366  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

George  III.  lived  Goldsmith,  the  author  of  "  The  Traveller" 
and  "  The  Deserted  Village/'  and  that  immortal  prose  work, 
<'The  Vicar  of  \yakefield."  With  the. century  closed  the 
life  of  a  poet,  dear  to  the  hearts  and  homes  of  all, — Cowper, 
the  sweet  Muse  of  Olney.  His  "  Task,"-  "  Table-Talk,"  the 
"  Lines  to  his  Mother's  Picture,"  and  his  hymns,  will  charm 
as  long  as  there  are  found  hearts  to  delight  in  pure  and 
natural  poetry. 

"Nor  ever  shall  he  be  in  praise 
By  wise  and  good  forsaken ; 
Named  softly  as  the  household  name 
Of  one  whom  God  hath  taken." 

The  eighteenth  century  gave  rise  to  a  new  species  of  com- 
position, that  of  prose  fiction  or  novels.  The  first  writer  in 
this  style  was  Daniel  Defoe,  the  author  of  the  well-known 
story  of  ''  Robinson  Crusoe."  To  him  succeeded  more  de- 
cided novelists,  such  as  Richardson,  Fielding,  Smollett,  and 
Sterne.  All  these  writers  partook  of  the  artificial  character 
of  the  age  in  which  they  lived,  and  their  works,  though  read 
with  delight  then,  would  scarcely  interest  the  present  genera- 
tion, whilst  the  coarseness  which  is  found  in  many  of  them, 
would  repel  the  more  refined  taste  of  the  readers  of  our  day. 

Among  the  prose  writers  of  this  period  stand  the  Dames  of 
some  of  our  greatest  historians.  Hume,  whose  well-written 
**  History  of  England"  has  long  continued  a  standard  work ; 
Robertson,  who  wrote  a  celebrated  '*  History  of  the  Reign  of 
the  Emperor  Charles  V.;"  and  Gibbon,  the  brilliant  author  of 
the  "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire."  It  is  painful 
to  record  that  the  religious  infidelity  of  two  of  these  historians, 
Hume  and  Gibbon,  casts  a  dark  shadow  over  their  works,  and 
makes  the  reader  feel  that  there  is  in  them  a  painful  lack  of 
sympathy  with  that  which  is,  above  all,  the  best  part  of  a 
people's  history, — its  Christian  character; — the  "righteous- 
ness" which  "  exalteth  a  nation." 

Among  the  productions  of  this  century,  may  be  named  the 
curious  literary  impostures  of  Macpherson   and  Chatterton, 


ENGLAND    DURING    THK    EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY.      357 

and  also  the  celebrated"  anonymous  "  Letters  of  Junius/' 
Macplierson,  a  Scotchman,  published,  in  the  year  1760,  a 
volume  called  the  "  Poems  of  Ossian,'^  which  he  pretended 
was  a  prose  translation  of  ancient  Gaelic  poetry,  written  as 
fiir  back  as  the  fourth  or  fifth  century  of  the  Christian  era. 
A  violent  controversy  as  to  the  authenticity  of  these  poems 
arose  among  the  learned  men  of  Scotland  and  England,  and 
it  was  only  at  the  end  of  a  long  and  critical  investigation  that 
they  were  pronounced  to  be  forgeries.  Chatterton,  a  mere 
boy  of  sixteen,  the  son  of  a  sexton  at  Bristol,  deceived,  for  a 
long  time,  the  literary  world,  by  the  Rowley  Poems.  He 
pretended  to  have  found  the  manuscript  in  an  old  chest  in 
the  church  of  St.  Mary  Redcliffe,  at  Bristol,  deposited  there 
by  a  priest  named  Thomas  Rowleie,  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
They  were  in  fact  his  own  compositions,  but  so  admirably  had 
this  "marvellous  boy"  imitated  the  style  of  a  past  age,  that 
even  the  acutest  critics  for  a  time  believed  them  to  belong  to 
the  century  to  which  their  young  author  attributed  them. 
The  ^'  Letters  of  Junius"  were  powerful  political  writings, 
which,  appearing  anonymously,  and  being  full  of  point  and 
sarcasm,  created  a  great  excitement  in  the  political  world. 
Their  probable  author  was  Sir  Philip  Francis. 

Undoubtedly  the  greatest  literary  hero  of  his  age,  whether 
considered  as  an  essayist,  a  moralist,  a  biographer,  or  as  the 
compiler  of  the  celebrated  ''  Dictionary  of  the  English  Lan- 
guage," is  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson — the  sage  of  Lichfield.  As  a 
poet,  his  satires,  especially  the  one  entitled  "Vanity  of  Human 
Wishes,"  written  in  imitation  of  the  Latin  poet  Juvenal,  have 
placed  him  in  a  high  rank.  His  "  Lives  of  the  Poets''  belongs 
to  the  classic  literature  of  England,  but  the  most  glorious 
monument  of  his  literary  fame  is  his  Dictionary.  In  this 
great  work  he  was  occupied  only  seven  years,  an  incredibly 
short  period,  when  we  consider  the  amount  of  research  and 
labor  required,  for  such  a  task  on  the  part  of  a  single  scholar. 

Blackstone's  valuable  "  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Eng- 
land" were  published  in  the  year  1765.  In  a  century,  the 
literary  annals  of  which  are  so  full,  we  can  do  no  more  than 


868  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

cull  a  few  names  here  and  there,  leaving  the  youthful  student 
to  become  acquainted  with  the  valuable  literature  of  this  age, 
as  his  sphere  of  knowledge  enlarges.  We  must  not,  however, 
quite  omit  a  mention  of  the  female  writers,  whose  works  were 
the  delight  of  their  own  day,  and  many  of  which  have  proved 
a  precious  legacy  to  succeeding  generations.  There  was  Miss 
Burney,  afterwards  Madame  D'Arblay,  who  wrote  the  agree- 
able and  celebrated  novels,  "Evelina/'  and  "Cecilia;"  the 
learned  Greek  scholar,  Elizabeth  Carter;  Mrs.  Barbauld, 
Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montagu,  and  the  crowning  glory  of 
female  authorship,  Hannah  More.  In  her  pleasant  home  at 
Cowslip  Green,  and  later  at  Barley  Wood,  this  good  and 
gifted  woman  drew  around  her  the  best  and  most  accom- 
plished men  and  women  of  her  day.  The  great  Dr.  Johnson, 
often  rough  and  uncouth  in  his  manners  to  others,  was  ever 
gentle  and  affectionate  towards  Hannah  More.  Garrick  the 
dramatist,  Horace  Walpole,  Newton,  Wilberforce,  and  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds,  were  all  numbered  among  her  friends. 

When  the  principles  of  the  French  Revolution  were  spread- 
ing throughout  England,  creating  discontent  in  many  an 
artisan's  hamlet  and  husbandman's  cottage,  Hannah  More 
wrote  "  Will  Chip's  Village  Politics."  The  sound  sense  and 
lively  wit  of  this  little  tract  soon  made  its  influence  felt 
throughout  the  land.  "  Will  Chip,  with  no  more,  as  it  were, 
than  a  sling,  and  a  few  smooth  stones,  ventured  forth  to  meet 
the  great  Goliath  of  the  times."  Other  tracts  followed,  and 
the  pages  of  the  "  Cheap  Repository,"  as  the  whole  collection 
was  called,  fostered  a  spirit  of  contentment  and  piety,  which 
was  an  inestimable  blessing  to  England  in  those  days. 

Questions  — What  was  the  state  of  religion  duving  the  first  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century  ? — Through  the  influence  of  what  two 
preachers  was  religion  revived  in  England  ? — Give  briefly  some  ac- 
count of  each  of  these  men. — What  led  Wesley  to  adopt  the  practice 
of  street  preaching? — State  the  incident  which  gave  rise  to  lay- 
preaching. — What  circumstance  originated  class  meetings? 

Against  what  religious  sect  did  severe  laws  exist  during  this 
period? — When  and  by  what  act  were  they  repealed? — Give  the 


ENGLAND   DURING    THE    EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY.       359 

history  of  "The  Protestant  Association." — Repeat  the  anecdote  of 
Lord  Mansfield. 

What  was  the  object  of  the  English  essayists  who  wrote  in  this 
age  ? — In  what  form  did  these  essays  appear  ? — Name  and  describe 
the  author  of  "Gulliver's  Travels." — Name  some  of  the  poetical 
■works  written  during  this  period,  and  give  their  authors. — Who 
wrote  "Robinson  Crusoe?" — What  novelists  lived  in  the  eighteenth 
century? — What  famous  historians? — What  were  the  "Letters  of 
Junius?" — What  is  remarked  of  Dr.  Johnson? — What  celebrated 
law  book  was  published  in  this  century? — Name  some  of  the  female 
writers  of  this  time. 


CHAPTER  LX. 

CONDITION  OP  ENGLAND  DURING  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

THE  MINISTRY — OLD  AND  NEW  STYLE — ARCHITECTURE — PAINTING — MUSIC 
—MANUFACTURES — TRAVELLING— AGRICULTURE— COMMERCE — MANNERS 
AND  CUSTOMS — AMUSEMENTS. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  preceding  century  the  king's 
chief  officer,  who  was  the  lord  treasurer,  received  the  name 
of  premier,  or  prime  minister.  In  the  course  of  time,  this 
minister  became  the  first  executive  officer  in  the  realm.  By 
him  all  the  principal  departments  of  government  are  filled. 
The  men  at  the  head  of  these  departments,  with  the  premier, 
are  called  "  the  ministry,'^  and  to  them  the  administration  of 
public  afiFairs  is  intrusted. 

Towards  the  close  of  this  century,  that  important  change 
in  the  method  of  reckoning  time,  known  as  "the  New  Style/' 
was  introduced  into  England.  In  "  the  Old  Style,"  which 
had  been  used  since  the  days  of  Julius  Cassar,  there  was 
found  a  difi'erence  between  the  real  and  apparent  year, 
amounting,  during  the  lapse  of  ages,  to  some  ten  or  eleven 
days.  An  act  of  parliament  passed  in  1752,  provided  that 
the  latter  number  of  days  should  be  left  out  of  the  calendar, 
the  3d  of  September  being  reckoned  as  the   14th.      Thia 


360  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

alteration  excited,  at  first,  a  great  commotion  among  the 
common  people.  They  declared  that  it  was  equivalent  to 
shortening  the  period  of  their  natural  lives  by  that  amount 
of  time ;  mobs  carried  through  the  streets,  placards,  on  which 
were  inscribed :  "  Give  us  back  our  eleven  days  \" 

On  the  25th  of  February,  1723,  Sir  Christopher  Wren  closed 
his  long  and  useful  career.  At  the  advanced  age  of  ninety- 
one,  this  great  architect  was  laid  in  his  tomb  in  the  crypt  of 
St.  Paul's  Church.  On  a  tablet  is  the  following  expressive 
epitaph :  "  Lector,  si  monumentum  requiris,  circumspice." 
*'  Reader,  if  you  would  inquire  for  my  monument,  look  around 
you."  To  Wren  succeeded  Vanbrugh,  the  most  magnificent 
monument  of  whose  fame  is  Blenheim  House — the  palace 
which  a  grateful  nation  bestowed  on  John,  Duke  of  Marl- 
borough, for  his  victories  on  the  continent.  In  the  tenth 
year  of  Queen  Anne's  reign,  an  order  for  the  building  of  fifty 
new  churches  in  London  and  its  neighborhood,  gave  an 
impulse  to  architecture,  and  produced  many  beautiful  edifices. 

During  the  early  part  of  the  century,  flourished  Sir  Godfrey 
•Kneller,  the  court  painter  of  Queen  Anne's  reign  Ten  years 
after  Kneller's  death,  appeared  Hogarth,  of  whose  original 
and  unrivalled  genius  his  country  may  well  be  proud.  His 
reputation  first  began  as  an  engraver,  but  his  "  pictured 
morals,^'  the  vivid  and  forcible  representations  of  real  life 
depicted  on  his  canvas,  have  secured  his  greatest  and  most 
wide-spread  fame.  There  are  few  who  have  not  enjoyed  the 
inimitable  humor  of  ''The  Enraged  Musician"  Hogarth 
died  in  1764.  Four  years  later  was  founded  "  The  Royal 
Academy  of  Arts."  Its  first  president  was  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
nolds, who  may  be  called  the  founder  of  the  English  school 
of  painters.  It  was  on  the  occasion  of  Reynolds's  inaugu- 
ration as  president  of  the  Royal  Academy,  that  George  III., 
himself  a  liberal  patron  of  the  fine  arts,  conferred  on  the 
distinguished  painter  the  honor  of  knighthood.  Among  the 
founders  of  the  Royal  Academy  were  West,  Wilson,  and 
Gainsborough,  all  honored  names  in  the  history  of  art.  West 
was  an  American  by  birth. 


ENGLAND   DURING    THE    EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY.      361 

To  the  sister-art  of  music,  in  nearly  every  department,  new 
cliarms  were  added,  and  this  century  is  particularly  rich  in 
beautiful  collections  of  church  music.  The  Oratorio,  that 
noble  triumph  of  musical  genius,  was  brought  out  in  the  year 
1720,  by  Frederick  Handel,  a  German  by  birth,  but  who  made 
England  the  country  of  his  adoption.  The  Itahan  Opera  was 
introduced  early  in  the  century,  but  no  English  production 
was  performed  until  the  year.  1727,  when  Gay's  composition. 
"  The  Beggars*  Opera,"  was  brought  out  at  Drury  Lane 
Theatre,  with  great  success. 

In  the  industrial  arts  this  period  was  one  of  wonderful 
progress.  Improvements  were  made  in  the  production  of 
nearly  every  useful  article  of  life.  Hitherto  the  woollen 
manufacture  had  been  the  one  of  greatest  importance.  Says 
an  English  writer  in  1694 :  '•  Nine  parts  in  ten  of  our  ex- 
ported commodities  doth  come  from  the  sheep's  back,  and 
from  hence  alone  is  the  spring  of  our  riches."  We  now 
enter  upon  a  century  in  which  this  statement  ceases  to  be 
true,  and  the  cotton  manufacture  becomes  the  great  source  of 
British  wealth.  As  the  cotton  yarn  was  spun  by  hand,  great 
difficulty  had  been  experienced  in  getting  a  sufficient  supply 
for  the  purposes  of  weaving.  The  little  that  could  be  pro- 
cured from  the  most  industrious  spinners  was  used  only  in  the 
woof,  it  not  being  strong  enough  for  the  warp  of  any  fabric. 
About  the  year  1764,  James  Hargreaves  invented  the  spin- 
ning-jenny, which  spun  first  eight,  and  soon  twice  that  number 
of  threads  at  a  time.  The  ignorant  spinners,  fearing  their 
occupation  would  be  gone  if  the  fast-spinning  jennies  took 
the  place  of  hand  labor,  destroyed  these  useful  machines 
wherever  they  could  find  them. 

A  few  years  later  Sir  Richard  Arkwright,at  first  a  poor 
barber,  gave  to  the  world  his  invaluable  invention  of  spinning 
by  rollers.  In  this  machine  the  cotton  is  drawn  swiftly  and 
carefully  between  a  pair  of  rollers,  thus  reducing  it  to  a 
coarse  thread.  This  thread  being  drawn  between  a  second 
set  of  rollers,  revolving  more  quickly  than  the  first,  is  mad^ 
31 


362  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

proportion  ably  finer ;  a  third  part  of  the  machine  twists  the 
threads  as  they  advance,  and  thus  by  this  system  of  artificial 
thumbs  and  fingers,  the  cotton  yarn  is  supplied  not  only  in 
sufiicient  quantity  for  the  weaver's  use,  but  also  of  so  strong  a 
fibre  that  he  need  no  longer  hesitate  to  employ  it  for  the  warp 
as  well  as  the  woof  of  his  manufacture.  Cromford,  on  the 
river  Derwent,  has  the  honor  of  being  "  the  nursing-place  of 
the  factory  opulence  and  power  of  Great  Britain."  There,  in 
1771,  Ark  Wright  erected  the  first  spinning-Ttheel  worked  by 
water-power. 

But  another  power  was  soon  to  be  appHed  to  cotton  spin- 
ning, which  was  immeasurably  to  increase  the  value  of  this 
manufacture.  This  was  the  steam-engine,  iuvented  by  James 
Watt,  and  first  used  in  the  cotton  factories  in  1785.  The  silk 
manufacture  increased  and  improved  greatly,  especially  when 
the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  had  brought  many 
skilful  French  artisans  into  England.  Early  in  this  century 
the  Silk  Weavers'  Company  reported  the  manufacture  in 
England  as  twenty  times  greater  in  extent  than  in  the  year 
1664,  and  the  silk  equal  in  quality  to  that  imported  from 
France.  Until  the  year  1715  the  weavers  were  dependent 
upon  Italy  for  their  supply  of  silk  thread,  in  which  country 
the  machinery  for  its  manufacture  had  been  brought  to  great 
perfection.  In  the  above-named  year  an  English  silk  mer- 
chant went  to  Italy,  determined  to  learn  the  secret  of  this 
superior  machinery.  After  much  difficulty  he  obtained  em- 
ployment in  an  humble  capacity  in  one  of  the  Italian  mills. 
Pleading  great  destitution,  he  was  permitted  to  sleep  in  the 
work-room.  Here  he  employed  his  nights  in  making  draw- 
ings of  the  machinery.  After  obtaining  the  requisite  infor- 
mation, he  left  his  Italian  employers,  returned  to  England, 
and  in  1719,  established  at  Derby,  in  connection  with  his 
brothers,  the  first  English  silk-factory. 

In  the  manufacture  of  porcelain  and  earthenware,  the  most 
useful  discoveries  and  improvements  were  made  during  the 
course  of  this  century.  In  1763,  Wedgewood  produced  the 
beautiful  artiple  known  aa  queens  ware.     It  was  of  a  delicate 


ENGLAND  DURING  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY.   363 

cream  color,  coated  with  a  fiue  and  durable  glazing,  and  so 
cheap  that  in  a  very  short  time  it  came  into  universal  use. 

The  manufacture  of  cutlery  had  been  established  at  Shef- 
field as  early  as  the  fourteenth  century..  In  1761,  there  were 
forty  thousand  persons  employed  in  the  making  of  hardware. 
At  Birmingham,  too,  fifty  thousand  were  busy  in  every  variety 
of  steel  and  iron  manufacture.  During  this  century  many 
large  and  valuable  iron  works  were  established  in  England, 
which  were  greatly  aided  by  the  vast  improvements  made  in 
machinery,  especially  by  the  invention  of  the  steam-engine. 
The  coal-mines  were  greatly  indebted  to  this  valuable  agent 
for  their  more  effective  and  extended  working. 

Travelling,  even  as  late  as  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  presented  none  of  those  facilities  which  now  render 
the  tour  of  England  a  journey  of  pleasure.  Turnpikes  had 
been  introduced,  but  they  w^ere  little  used^  and  seldom  or 
never  kept  in  good  repair.  From  the  report  of  a  tourist  who 
wrote  in  1770,  there  seems  to  have  existed  no  idea  of  the 
proper  construction  of  a  road.  "  The  turnpikes,"  he  ex- 
claims, '"  as  they  have  the  assurance  to  call  them,  and  the 
hardiness  to  make  one  pay  for,"  are  "  mere  rocky  lanes  full 
of  hugeous  stones  as  big  as  one's  head,  and  abominable  holes.'' 
The  same  traveller  complains  of  the  ruts  being  four  feet  deep, 
flooded  with  mud,  and  the  roads  in  some  places  so  narrow 
that  a  mouse  cannot  pass  by  any  carriage.  The  method  of 
transportation  by  canals  was  introduced  about  the  middle  of 
this  century.  The  first  was  the  Bridge  water  Canal,  con- 
structed in  1755  by  the  Duke  of  Bridgewater,  for  the  purpose 
of  carrying  coals  from  the  mines  at  Worsley  to  jManchester. 
This  new  and  easy  mode  of  conveyance  produced  so  great  a 
reduction  in  the  charge  of  transportation  of  goods,  that  it 
soon  obtained  the  preference  over  land  carriage.  Brindley, 
the  architect  of  the  earliest  canals  in  Great  Britain,  cut 
through  a  hill  in  Staffordshire  a  tunnel  nearly  three  thousand 
yards  in  length.  This  was  on  the  Trent  and  Mersey,  or 
Grand  Trunk  Canal.  It  was  considered  a  wonderful  achieve- 
ment in  those  days.  , 


364  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

Agriculture  became  much  improved.  Very  beautiful  gar- 
dens were  laid  out,  and  even  the  cottager's  plot  of  ground 
produced  a  quantity  and  variety  of  vegetables  unknown  in 
former  times.  The  potato  was  cultivated,  and  before  the 
close  of  the  century  became  a  common  article  of  food.  In 
1717,  greenhouses,  for  the  raising  of  tropical  fruits  and 
flowers,  w^ere  introduced  into  England.  Hitherto  the  green- 
house had  only  been  used  for  the  protection  of  delicate  plants 
during  the  winter. 

The  foreign  commerce  of  Great  Britain  brought  stores 
of  wealth  to  her  treasury.  Her  trade  with  the  American 
colonies,  valuable  as  it  had  been  before  their  independence, 
became  still  more  so  after  that  event.  Tobacco,  rice,  and 
other  valuable  imports  were  brought  from  the  United  States, 
whilst  the  English  West  Indies  afforded  large  supplies  of 
sugar,  and  Honduras  furnished  mahogany  and  logw^ood.  The 
East  India  trade  became  yearly  more  extended  and  more 
profitable,  and  that  carried  on  with  the  countries  of  Europe, 
especially  with  Holland,  produced  a  constant  revenue.  To 
the  merchantman,  and  indeed  to  every  mariner,  one  work  of 
this  century  will  ever  be  acknowledged  with  gratitude — the 
Eddystone  Lighthouse,  erected  by  Smeaton  in  1755.  Pre- 
vious to  this  date  two  lighthouses  had  been  erected  on  the 
dangerous  rocks  which  line  the  coast  of  Hampshire.  Both 
had  been  destroyed — the  one  by  the  violence  of  the  elements, 
and  the  other  by  fire.  But  Smeaton's  structure  of  stone, 
erected  on  the  same  spot,  has  now  stood  for  more  than  a 
century,  defying  the  winds  and  waves,  and  proving  a  beacon 
and  a  blessing  to  the  countless  vessels  that  navigate  the 
English  Channel. 

The  state  of  society  in  England  before  the  accession  of 
George  III.,  was  disgraceful  in  the  extreme.  It  seems  in- 
credible to  the  more  moral  and  refined  taste  of  our  own.  day, 
that  such  vices  and  frivolous  pursuits  could  have  existed 
among  the  higher  classes  of  society,  as  those  of  which  the 
essayists  complain.  It  was  thought  sufl&cient  for  a  fashion- 
able lady  if  she  could  barely  read  an^  write ; — be  able  to  pen 


ENGLAND   DURING   THE   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY.      365 

a  sKort  letter  without  a  great  deal  of  misspelling,  understand 
enough  arithmetic  to  answer  the  purposes  of  the  card-table, 
and  dancing  sufficient  to  exhibit  in  the  assemblies  called, 
most  characteristically,  routs,  drums,  and  hurricanes.  Her 
days  and  nights  were  spent  in  a  career  of  dissipation.  The 
toilette  occupied  a  large  part  of  every  morning,  after  which 
she  dashed  over  the  city  on  a  round  of  visiting,  in  a  coach  with 
four  laced  and  powdered  footmen  behind  it.  In  these  visits 
all  the  gossip  and  scandal  of  the  day  were  talked  over. 

Even  the  outward  observances  of  religion  were  neglected. 
If  a  woman  of  fashion  ever  went  to  church,  it  was  only  occa- 
sionally of  an  afternoon,  to  display  her  dress,  see  frivolous 
companions,  and  "  deal  curtsies  from  her  pew."  Generally, 
however,  the  sacred  day  was  spent  in  drives  on  the  public 
parks,  and  its  evenings  in  playing  at  cards. 

A  writer  in  the  Pictorial  history,  describing  a  woman  of 
these  days,  says :  "■  She  patronized  French  milliners,  French 
hair-dressers,  and  Italian  opera-singers ;  she  loved  tall  footmen 
and  turbaned  negro  footboys ;  she  doted  upon  monkeys,  paro- 
quets, and  lap-dogs;  was  a  perfect  critic  in  old  china  and 
Indian  trinkets ;  and  could  not  exist  without  a  raffle  or  a  sale." 
It  is  to  this  passion  for  old  china  that  the  poet  Pope  probably 
alludes,  in  his  unworthy  Essay  on  Woman,  when  he  describes 
his  perfect  character  as 

"Mistress  of  herself  though  china  fall." 

The  day  spent  as  above  described,  necessarily  encroached 
upon  the  hours  which  should  have  been  given  to  sleep. 
Sometimes  these  votaries  of  fashion  would  not  return  to  their 
homes  before  two  o'clock  in  the  morning,  although  the  regular 
hour  for  bed,  among  the  sober  portion  of  the  community,  was 
eleven.  The  night  was  divided  between  the  gaming-table  and 
the  opera  Loo  and  faro  were  the  names  of  two  favorite  games 
of  cards,  at  which  immense  sums  were  lost  and  won.  We  hear 
of  the  Princess  Amelia,  a  daughter  of  George  II.,  playing  till 
midnight  at  loo,  and  of  Charles  Fox,  the  famous  orator,  losing 
81* 


866  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

five  hundred  pounds  per  hour  at  a  game  of  hazard,  which 
lasted  twenty-two  hours. 

Such  being  the  character  of  the  women  of  that  day,  we 
shall  not  look  for  a  much  higher  standard  in  that  of  the 
opposite  sex.  Addison's  two  admirable  papers  in  the  Specta- 
tor, called  "Dissection  of  a  Beau's  Head,"  and  "A  Coquette's 
Heart,"  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  accomplishments,  both  mental 
and  moral,  of  both  sexes.  The  lower  classes  copied  the  vices 
of  their  superiors — dishonesty,  drunkenness,  and  impudence 
prevailed  among  them  to  an  astonishing  extent.  The  drink- 
ing of  ardent  spirits,  and  especially  of  gin,  was  so  common, 
that  the  streets  of  London  were  filled  with  wretched  drunk- 
ards, often  lying  insensible  upon  the  pavement,  and  only 
removed  by  the  charity  of  some  passer-by  from  the  danger 
of  being  run  over. 

In  this  century  we  lose  all  traces  of  the  feudal  nooic 
surrounded  by  his  retinue  of  dependants.  The  nobility  now 
resided  near  the  court,  and  depended  upon  court  influence  for 
their  importance,  rather  than  upon  a  host  of  retainers.  The 
country  gentleman  still  existed,  and  in  his  hospitable  mansion 
lingered  those  customs  and  festivals  which  had  been  practised 
in  the  days  of  the  Stuarts.  The  admirable  picture  which 
Addison  has  given  in  the  Spectator  of  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley, 
is  a  perfect  representation  of  the  sentiments  and  life  of  a 
country  gentleman  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Many  of 
these  rustic  squires  passed  their  lives  in  the  pleasures  of  the 
chase.  Their  powers  of  body  and  mind  were  devoted  to  fox- 
hunting Their  only  ambition  was  to  become  renowned  as 
sportsmen,  and  to  have  their  halls  adorned  with  trophies 
of  the  chase.  The  country  ladies,  cut  ofi"  by  the  badness 
of  the  roads  from  their  frivolous  sisters  of  the  metropolis, 
spent  their  days  in  more  useful  and  innocent  employments. 
They  devoted  themselves  to  cookery,  preparing  cordials  and 
medicines  for  the  sick,  visiting  their  tenantry,  and  performing 
in  as  perfect  a  manner  as  their  limited  intelligence  would 
enable  them  to  do,  the  duties  of  a  Lady  Bountiful. 


ENGLAND  DURING  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY.   367 

The  most  striking  peculiarities  in  the  dress  of  this  period 
were  the  cocked  hats,  powdered  wigs,  and  gold-laced  scarlet 
coats  of  the  men,  and  the  hoops,  patches,  flowered  brocades, 
and  powdered  hair  of  the  women.  The  fashion  of  wearing 
patches  on  the  face  had  been  introduced  towards  the  close  of 
the  preceding  century,  but  was  at  its  height  in  the  reign  of 
Queen  Anne.  The  ladies  of  her  day  were  apt  to  be  violent 
politicians,  and  the  side  which  they  took,  whether  Whig  or 
Tory,  was  made  known  by  the  side  of  the  face  on  which  they 
wore  the  patches.  In  the  year  1748,  George  II.  saw  the 
Duchess  of  Bedford  in  a  riding  habit  of  blue  faced  with 
white.  The  beauty  of  the  contrasted  colors  so  struck  the 
fancy  of  his  majesty,  that  he  ordered  them  to  be  adopted  for 
the  uniform  of  the  navy. 

With  regard  to  furniture,  vast  improvements  took  place. 
Mahogany  was  discovered  to  be  a  beautiful  material  for 
cabinet  furniture,  and  came  by  degrees  into  general  use. 
Chinese  porcelain  and  Japan  ware  were  much  valued,  and 
jars,  vases,  cabinets,  and  every  imaginable  article  of  orna- 
ment were  made  of  them.  The  chairs,  tables,  bedsteads, 
cabinets,  &c.,  of  this  period  were  so  beautifully  wrought  and 
durably  made,  that  this  old-fashioned  furniture  is  considered 
far  more  valuable  than  that  of  the  present  day.  About  the 
middle  of  the  century,  carpet  making  was  begun  at  Kidder- 
minster, and  from  that  time  the  floors  of  all  the  better  class 
of  houses  were  furnished  with  this  luxury. 

Public  gardens  were  favorite  places  of  amusement.  The 
most  noted  of  these  were  Ranelagh  and  Vauxhall.  The 
grounds  were  laid  out  in  beautiful  walks,  ornamented  with 
shade-trees,  artificial  cascades,  and  fountains.  The  trees  were 
hung  at  night  with  lamps,  and  bands  of  music  played  the 
beautiful  compositions  of  Handel.  Summer-houses  and  bowers 
were  dispersed  over  the  grounds,  and  fireworks  frequently  en- 
livened the  scene.  For  nearly  fifty  years  crowds  gathered  in 
Ranelagh  Gardens  every  Monday,  Wednesday,  and  Friday 
evenings,  to  listen  to  the  fine  compositions  of  Handel,  or  to 


368  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

the  lighter  music  of  the  popular  songs  and  ballads  of  the 
day. 

A  very  fashionable  place  of  amusement  among  the  nobility 
was  Almack's,  a  celebrated  club-house  opened  in  1765.  In 
its  assembly  room  were  given  some  of  the  most  magnificent 
balls  of  that  day.  The  aristocracy  made  very  splendid  and 
expensive  entertainments,  especially  on  royal  birthdays,  and 
at  marriages,  christenings,  &c.  The  principal  amusements  at 
these  gatherings  were  dice,  cards,  dancing,  music,  and  some- 
times fireworks. 

Watering-places  were  extremely  fashionable.  Bath  was  the 
chief  place  of  resort  for  the  nobility,  whilst  Tunbridge  and 
Epsom  attracted  the  families  of  the  wealthy  Londoners  and 
country  gentry.  Among  the  middle  classes,  puppet  shows, 
the  exhibitions  of  Punch,  bowls,  foot-ball,  prize  fighting,  and 
above  all,  the  charms  of  a  Bartholomew  Fair,  were  the  grand 
sources  of  amusement.  This  fair  was  held  annually  in  Lon- 
don, and  every  description  of  diversion  was  devised  to  allure 
and  delight  the  people.  For  about  a  fortnight  a  scene  of 
uproarious  merriment  was  kept  up,  which  greatly  disturbed 
the  tranquillity  of  every  quiet-loving  citizen.  In  the  country, 
shooting,  fishing,  and  fox-hunting  were  the  absorbing  amuse- 
ments of  the  men,  whilst  county  and  subscription  balls,  and 
occasional  fairs,  were  sources  of  recreation  to  their  wives  and 
daughters.  The  annual  horse-races  at  Epsom  and  New- 
market, presented  great  attractions  to  the  citizens  as  well  as 
to  the  country  gentry. 

After  the  accession  of  George  III.,  a  better  influence 
gradually  gained  ground  among  the  upper  classes  of  society. 
More  rational  and  refined  amusements  took  the  place  of  the 
boisterous  merriment  which  had  prevailed  since  the  days  of 
the  Restoration.  Concerts,  lectures,  and  assemblies  of  lite- 
rary people  became  fashionable.  Among  the  latter  were  the 
famous  Blue  Stocking  Clubs,  which  acquired  their  singular 
name  from  the  circumstance  that  one  of  their  chief  orna- 
ments, a  gentleman  of  rare  conversational   powers,  always 


ENGLAND   DURING   THE  EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY.       369 

wore  stockings  of  that  color.  When  he  absented  himself,  his 
loss  was  so  sensibly  felt  by  the  rest  of  the  company,  that  they 
were  wont  to  say :  "  We  can  do  nothing  without  the  blue 
stockings." 

Questions. — Describe  the  position  of  the  prime  minister. — What 
do  you  understand  as  to  time  by  the  terms  Old  and  New  Style? — 
What  gave  an  impulse  to  architecture  in  Queen  Anne's  reign? — 
Name  the  most  distinguished  painters  of  this  period. 

What  manufacture  became  the  source  of  great  wealth  ? — Name 
some  of  the  inventions  wiiich  gave  importance  to  this  manufacture. 
— Relate  the  account  given  of  the  silk  manufacture. — By  what 
means  was  the  art  of  making  the  silk  thread  introduced  into  Eng- 
land ? — What  is  said  of  the  Sheffield  manufactures  ? — Of  those  at 
Birmingham  ? — What  branches  of  industry  were  especially  benefited 
by  the  discovery  of  steam  power  ? 

Describe  the  highways  of  this  time. — When  were  canals  first  used? 
— Repeat  the  account  given  of  agriculture,  gardening,  and  green- 
houses.— Describe  the  accomplishments  necessary  to  a  fashionable 
woman  during  this  period. — Describe  the  condition  of  the  lower 
classes. — Describe  the  manner  of  life  of  the  country  gentlemen  of 
this  period. — In  what  way  did  country  ladies  pass  their  time  ? — 
Mention  the  striking  peculiarities  in  the  dress  of  these  times. — 
What  incident  gave  rise  to  the  naval  uniform  ? — Name  some  of  the 
amusements  of  the  eighteenth  century. — State  the  origin  of  the 
appellation,  "Blue  Stocking." 


370  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 


PART  XI. 
ENGLAND  DURING  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

GEORGE  III.— GEORGE  IV.— WILLIAM  IV.— VICTORIA. 
A.  D.  1800—1860. 

•'That  name  which  scattered  by  disastrous  blare 
All  Europe's  bound-lines  drawn  afresh  in  blood. 
Napoleon — from  the  Russias  west  to  Spain ! 

And  Austria  trembled — till  we  heard  her  chain." 

E.  B.  Browning. 


CHAPTER  LXI 

GEORGE   III. — THE   LAST   TWENTY   YEARS   OF   HIS   REIGN. 

THE   ARMED   NEUTRALITY — TRAFALGAR — PEr^INSULAR    WAR— WATERLOO — 
WAR   WITH    AMERICA — BARBARY    PIRATES. 

At  the  opening  of  this  century  a  confederacy  hostile  to 
the  commercial  interests  of  Great  Britain  was  entered  into 
by  the  northern  powers  of  Europe.  The  governments  of 
Russia,  Sweden,  and  Denmark,  instigated  by  France,  com- 
mitted acts  of  hostility,  and  showed  a  determination  to  make 
England  yield  her  naval  supremacy.  Resolved  to  strike  a 
blow  asi-ainst  the  '*  Armed  Neutrality,"  as  this  con- 

1801. 

federation  of  her  enemies  was  called,  Great  Britain 
sent  a  fleet  to  the  Baltic.  An  envoy  was  dispatched  to 
Copenhagen  to  obtain  by  negotiation,  if  possible,  the  demands 
of  the  British  government.  He  was  unsuccessful  however, 
and  the  English  fleet,  commanded  by  Admiral  Sir  Hyde 
Parker  and  Lord  Nelson,  advanced  to  the  attack  of  the  capital. 


GEORGE  in.  871 

On  the  morning  of  the  30th  of  March,  eighteen  English 
ships  of  the  line,  and  a  number  of  smaller  vessels,  entered 
the  narrow  sound  which  separates  Denmark  and  Sweden. 
Before  them  frowned  the  battlements  of  the  three  old 
fortresses  of  Helsinborg,  Cronenberg,  and  Elsinore,  while 
beyond,  the  stately  capitol  of  Copenhagen  rose  proudly  from 
the  water's  edge.  The  shore  was  lined  with  multitudes  who 
beheld  the  novel  spectacle  of  a  fleet  bearing  past  the  castle 
of  Elsinore  without  lowering  its  topsails  to  the  flag  of  Den- 
■  mark.  All  the  patriotism  and  valor  of  the  land  had  rallied 
to  defend  its  shores.  Ramparts  were  raised  and  manned  with 
the  bravest  hearts;  a  formidable  line  of  ships,  floating  bat- 
teries, and  gunboats  were  provided,  and  the  buoys  were 
removed  from  a  channel  famous  for  its  shoals  and  sand-banks. 

Notwithstanding  all  these  obstacles,  Lord  Nelson,  with  only 
twelve  line-of-battle  ships,  anchored  on  the  1st  of  April  within 
two  leagues  of  Copenhagen.  Sir  Hyde  Parker  remained  with 
the  rest  of  the  fleet  at  the  entrance  of  the  sound.  At  10 
o'clock,  on  the  morning  of  the  2d  of  April,  the  battle  began, 
and  raged  furiously  for  three  hours.  At  1  o'clock,  the 
cannonade  from  the  Danish  batteries  and  ships  being  still 
kept  up,  and  three  of  the  best  English  vessels,  unable  to 
join  in  the  engagement,  having  grounded  on  the  shoals, 
Admiral  Parker  gave  the  signal  to  withdraw.  Nelson  was 
in  the  thickest  of  the  fight  when  this  signal  was  reported  to 
him.  Instead  of  obeying  it,  he  exclaimed  to  one  of  his 
captains :  "  What  think  you,  the  admiral  has  hung  out  No. 
39.*  You  know  I  have  only  one  eye ;  I  have  a  right  to  be 
bhnd  sometimes."  Then  putting  the  glass  to  his  blind  eye, 
he  continued,  ''  I  really  don't  see  the  signal.  Keep  mine  for 
closer  battle,  still  flying."  Such  was  the  intrepidity  that  won 
a  battle  of  which  the  hero  remarked  :  *'  I  have  been  in  above 
a  hundred  engagements,  but  that  of  Copenhagen  was  the  most 
terrible  of  them  all." 

This  decisive  blow  had   the   effect,  in    conjunction  with 

*  The  signal  for  breaking  off  the  action. 


372  HISTOKY    CF    ii.N GLAND. 

another  important  event,  of  putting  an  end  to  the  Armed 
Neutrality.  The  latter  event  was  the  death  of  the  emperor 
of  Kussia,  and  the  accession  of  a  new  czar,  Alexander  I., 
who  immediately  entered  into  friendly  negotiations  with 
Great  Britain. 

In  the  spring  of  1802,  the  treaty  of  Amiens  was  signed 
between  France  and  England.  It  made  but  a  brief  pause 
in  the  fearful  contest  raging  throughout  Europe.  War  was 
renewed  in  1803,  and  continued  its  destructive  course  until 
the  sun  of  Napoleon  went  down  on  the  field  of  Waterloo. 
To  dwell  minutely  on  these  scenes  of  strife  would  be  unne- 
cessary ;  we  will  therefore  only  glance  at  the  more  important 
events  in  the  history  of  the  struggle. 

Napoleon  had  returned  to  Europe  in  the  year  1799,  leaving 
his  generals  to  pursue  the  conquest  of  Egypt.  In  March, 
1801,  the  French  general  Moreau  sustained  a  severe  defeat 
in  a  battle  fought  near  Alexandria,  and  a  few  months  later  he 
was  besieged  in  that  city  by  the  united  English  and  Turkish 
forces  under  General  Hutchinson.  Moreau,  finding  no  pros- 
pect of  relief,  surrendered  j  and,  before  the  close  of  the  year, 
the  French  were  compelled  to  abandon  Egypt. 

On  the  18th  of  May,  1804,  Napoleon  was  declared  Emperor 
pf  the  French,  and  during  the  following  year  carried  on  a 
successful  campaign  in  Northern  Italy  and  Austria.  On  the 
surrender  of  the  old  Austrian  town  of  Ulm,  by  General 
Mack,  on  the  20th  of  October,  1805,  Napoleon  gazed  upon 
an  array  of  sixty  thousand  prisoners  of  war  as  they  defiled 
before  him.  He  exclaimed :  "  I  jnust  have  greater  things 
than  these — ships,  colonies,  commerce !  <Jhese  are  what  I 
want  I"  The  moTrow's  sun  shone  down  tfpon  the  battle  of 
Trafalgar,  by  which  these  much-coveted  advantages  were 
confirmed  to  his  enemies,  and  the  hope  of  their  acquisition 
was  for  ever  crushed  in  the  mind  of  Napoleon. 

The  battle  of  Trafakar,  gained  by  Lord  Nelson,  on 

1 805*  o      '  o  J  > 

the  morning  of  the  21st  October,  1805,  will  be  ever 
memorable  in  the  annals  of  Great  Britain's  naval  history j 
memorable  for  the  bravery  with  which  an  English  fleet  of 


GEORGE   III.  373 

twenty-seven  s»il  encountered  and  almost  annihilated  the 
combined  squadrons  of  France  and  Spain ;  memorable  for  the 
death  of  the  gallant  Lord  Nelson,  who  fell  in  the  moment  of 
hard-earned  victory;  but  more  memorable  still  for  the  la^t 
signal  which  that  brave  hero  made  to  his  fleet  on  going  into 
action,  and  which  was  responded  to  with  enthusiasm  by  every 
ship  in  the  line.  Those  simple  words,  "England  expects 
every  man  to  do  his  duty,"  animated  with  rapturous  enthu- 
siasm the  men  who  fought  at  Trafalgar,  and  their  sentiment 
availed  in  many  a  succeeding  conflict  to  turn  the  field  of 
battle  on  which  Englishmen  strove,  into  a  field  of  victory. 

In  the  year- 1808,  Napoleon  was  at  the  height  of  his  power 
and  glory.  All  continental  Europe  lay  prostrate  at  his  feet. 
He  had  seized  the  thrones  of  Holland  and  Naples  for  two  of 
his  brothers,  Louis  and  Joseph,  and  for  a  third  had  erected 
Westphalia  into  a  kingdom.  He  now  sought  to  transfer 
Joseph  Bonaparte  to  the  throne  of  Spain,  providing  for  the 
vacant  crown  of  Naples  by  placing  it  on  the  head  of  Murat, 
one  of  his  bravest  generals.  This  attempt,  resisted  by  Spain, 
in  alliance  with  Portugal  and  England,  resulted  in  the  long 
and  disastrous  Peninsular  War.  In  July,  Sir  Arthur  Wel- 
lesley  (soon  afterwards  Duke  of  Wellington)  was  sent  out 
with  a  force  of  ten  thousand  men.     At  Vimeira,  in 

1808.  .  . 

Portugal,  he  gained  a  victory  over  the  French 
marshal  Junot;  but  the  generals  who  immediately  superseded 
Wellesley,  instead  of  pursuing  this  victory,  entered  into  an 
agreement  by  which  the  French,  on  terms  in  the  highest 
degree  favorable  to  themselves,  abandoned  Portugal.  This 
agreement,  the  Convention  of  Cintra,  as  it  is  called,  gave 
great  dissatisfaction  in  England.  The  generals  who  had 
concluded  it  were  summoned  home,  and  Sir  John  Moore 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  English  forces  in  the 
Peninsula. 

This   general   advanced    into    Spain,   but   Napoleon   had 

entered  that  country  with  near  200,000  men,  defeated  the 

Spaniards  in  several  engagements,  taken  Madrid,  and  being 

now  with  fifty  thousand  men  in  pursuit  of  the  English,  Sir 

32 


374  IllSTOIiV    OF    ENGLAND. 

John  Moore  was  forced  to  retreat.  Napoletn  was  himself 
recalled  to  France,  but  Marshal  Soult  assumed  the  command, 
and  continued  the  march  upon  the  retreating  English. 
•  When,  on  the  11th  of  January,  1809,  the  army  of  Sir 
John  Moore  gazed  from  the  heights  of  Corunna  upon  the 
sea,  and  saw  not  a  single  transport  in  the  harbor,  they  knew 
their  only  hope  lay  in  successful  battle  with  the  pursuing  foe. 
That  battle,  fought  on  the  IGth,  in  the  face  of  overwhelming 
numbers,  was  won,  but  with  the  sacrifice  of  their  brave  com- 
mander. Sir  John  Moore  perished  upon  the  field  of  victory. 
The  enemy  were  repulsed,  but  there  was  no  time  to  be  lost  in 
the  embarkation  of  the  troops  on  board  the  transports  which 
two  days  before  had  anchored  in  the  harbor.  Hastily,  and 
in  silence,  a  grave  was  dug  on  the  ramparts  of  Corunna,  in 
which  was  laid  the  body  of  the  departed  general.  But  the 
scene  of  that  touching  burial  is  best  described  in  the  exquisite 
lines  of  the  poet — 

"  Not  a  drum  was  heard,  not  a  funeral  note, 
As  his  corse  to  the  ramparts  we  hurried: 
Not  a  soldier  discharged  his  farewell  shot 
O'er  the  grave  where  our  hero  we  buried ;" 

This  noble  funeral  dirge  will  ever  give  to  the  name  and 
memory  of  Sir  John  Moore  an  association  of  interest. 

During  the  first  years  of  the  Peninsular  War,  the  generals 
of  Napoleon  made  themselves  masters  of  the  finest  provinces 
and  strongest  fortresses  of  Spain.  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  as- 
sumed the  command  of  the  English  forces  in  the  Peninsula 
in  1809.  Whenever  these  forces  encountered  the  French, 
they  won  important  and  splendid  victories,  as  at  Talavera, 
Busaco,  Albuerra,  Salamanca,  &c. ;  but  Spain  being  occupied 
by  immense  armies  of  the  French,  and  no  dependence  to 
be  placed  on  the  Spanish  allies,  the  prospect  of  recovering  the 
Peninsula  seemed  indeed  hopeless.  It  was  not  until  the  close 
of  the  year  1810  that  the  genius  of  Wellington  first  turned 
the  tide  of  conquest.  Opposed  by  vastly  superior  forces, 
which,   moreover,    were    commanded    by   Napoleon's    ablest 


GEORGE   III.  375 

marshals;  with  an  army  disheartened  by  hardships  and 
reverses;  receiving  no  efficient  support  from  the  ministry  in 
England,  and  constantly  thwarted  by  the  most  base  and 
cowardly  conduct  on  the  part  of  his  Spanish  allies  and  the 
government  of  Portugal,  Wellington,  with  the  patient  courage 
of  the  true  hero,  maintained  for  three  years  longer  the  unpro- 
mising struggle. 

At  last  came  his  reward.  At  the  close  of  the  year  1813, 
the  eagles  of  the  empire,  which,  in  1810,  had  jfirst  quailed 
before  him  at  the  rock  of  Torres  Vedras,  took  their  final 
flight  from  the  Peninsula.  On  the  21st  of  June  was  fought 
the  great  battle  of  Yittoria,  wherein  victory  rested  with  the 
English.  Fortress  after  fortress  was  wrested  from  the  enemy, 
and  Wellington,  having  crossed  the  Bidassoa,  was  fighting 
the  French  successfully  on  the  soil  of  their  own  kingdom. 

In  the  spring  of  1812,  Nmpoleon,  thinking  the  conquest  of 
Spain  secure,  had  set  out  at  the  head  of  five  hundred  thousand 
men  for  the  invasion  of  Russia.  This  memorable  expedition 
resulted  in  the  burning  of  Moscow  to  prevent  its  being  occu- 
pied by  the  French  for  their  winter  quarters,  and  in  the 
disastrous  retreat  and  destruction  of  Napoleon's  hosts. 

Of  the  vast  multitudes  which  had  followed  the  imperial 
eagles  across  the  Niemen,  but  twenty  thousand  repassed  that 
1813  river.  Misfortunes  dark  and  manifold  now  gathered 
to  around  the  throne  of  Napoleon.  From  the  rock  of 
Lisbon  to  the  shores  of  the  White  Sea,  all  Europe 
rose  against  him.  A  million  of  his  soldiers  had  perished  in 
eighteen  months.  Whence  could  he  raise  new  armies  ?  On 
the  11th  of  April,  1814,  after  several  desperate  but  disastrous 
struggles.  Napoleon  yielded  to  the  power  of  his  enemies.  He 
abdicated  his  throne  and  retired  to  the  island  of  Elba.  Escap- 
ing thence,  in  the  spring  of  1815  he  returned  to  France. 
By  the  old  army  he  was  welcomed  with  enthusiasm ;  soldiers 
rallied  once  more  under  the  imperial  eagles,  and  now  drew  on 
the  last  act  in  this  long  fearful  tragedy  of  war. 

Napoleon,  having  raised  an  army  of  one  hundred  and  twenty 
thousand  men,  strong  both  in  artillery  and  cavalry,  suddenly 


376  HISTORY   OP  ENGLAND. 

entered  Belgium.  The  emperor's  intention  was  to  interpose 
between  the  English  army  under  Wellington,  stationed  at 
Brussels,  and  that  of  its  Prussian  ally,  which,  under  Marshal 
Blucher,  was  posted  some  seventy  miles  distant ; — to  defeat 
the  Prussians  first,  and  afterwards,  as  he  expressed  it,  ''  to 
measure  himself  with  this  Wellington. '^ 

Intelligence  that  Napoleon  had  crossed  the  frontier  reached 
the  English  duke  on  the  evening  of  the  15th  of  June.  With 
characteristic  calmness  he  gave  the  necessary  orders  for  the 
march  of  the  troops,  and  then  went  to  the  Duchess  of  Rich- 
mond's ball — an  incident  made  so  familiar  by  Lord  Byron's 
lines  in  Childe  Harold  : — 

There  was  a  sound  of  revelry  by  night, 
And  Belgium's  capital  had  gathered  there 
Her  beauty  and  her  chivalry. 

On  the  16th  of  June  two  battles  were  fought.  That  of 
Ligny,  where  Napoleon  had  attacked  the  Prussians;  and 
that  of  Quatre-Bras,  where  Welfington,  in  endeavoring  to 
unite  with  Blucher,  encountered  the  French  under  Marshal 
Ney.  In  the  former  the  Prussians  were  defeated,  and  com- 
pelled to  retreat,  but  the  advantage  to  the  French  was 
counterbalanced  by  the  success  of  the  British  at  Quatre- 
Bras,  where  Ney,  after  four  hours'  hard  fighting,  had  lost  the 
battle. 

Wellington's  army  fell  back  towards  Brussels  in  order  to 
secure  communication  with  the  Prussians.  Blucher  sent 
word  to  the  duke,  that  although  defeated  he  should  be  ready 
again  for  action  so  soon  as  his  men  should  receive  a  supply 
of  bread  and  cartridges.  W^ellington  in  return  communicated 
his  intention  to  engage  the  French,  provided  he  could  rely  on 
the  support  of  two  Prussian  divisions,  and  the  brave  old  mar- 
shal instantly  promised  to  advance  with  his  whole  force. 

On  the  opposite  summits  of  low  ranges  of  hills  which 
overlook  the  plain  of  Waterloo,  the  French  and  English 
armies  bivouacked  on  the  night  of  the  17th  June.  Rain 
fell  in  torrents,  and  its  melancholy  hours  were  spent  upon 


GEORGE    III  877 

the  soaking  wet  ground.  Some  English  battaHons,  still  more 
unfortunate,  lay  among  the  rye-fieids,  the  tall  grain  of  which 
was  dripping  from  top  to  bottom. 

On  the  morning  of  the  18th  June,  1815,  amid  the  rolling 
of  drums  and  bursts  of  martial  music,  the  French  forces  took 
up  their  position.  The  English  in  silence,  broken  only  by 
the  rumbliug  of  artillery  or  the  word  of  command,  secured 
their  ground  When  Napoleon  gazed  upon  the  British 
legions,  arranged  in  compact  squares,  and  marshalled  for  the 
fight,  he  exclaimed:  ^'I  have  them,  these  English!"  "Sire,'' 
replied  Soult,  '•'!  know  these  English;  they  will  die  on  the 
ground  on  which  they  stand,  before  they  lose  it/' 

As  the  clock  from  a  neighboring  village  struck  eleven,  the 
first  gun  was  fired  from  the  French  lines,  and  the  action 
commenced  by  their  attack  on  an  old  chateau,  where  was 
posted  a  body  of  English  light  •  troops.  By  a  fierce  assault 
the  wood  surrounding  the  chateau  was  carried,  but  the  house 
held  out,  an  iuvincible  citadel,  until  consumed  by  the- fire 
from  the  French  howitzers.  '  Even  then  the  brave  foot-guards 
maintained  the  garden  and  courtyard,  and  turned  the  storm 
of  battle  from  that  quarter.  It  then  burst  in  full  force  upon 
the  British  left,  to  be  not  only  repelled,  but  returned  by  such 
a  brilliant  charge  of  cavalry  from-  the  Scotch  Greys,  as  to 
extort  admiration  from  Napoleon  himself  "  Those  terrible 
Greys,  how  they  fight !"  he  exclaimed,  when  he  beheld  his 
column  of  five  thousand  strong  scattered  by  their  charge,  two 
thousand  prisoners  taken,  and  eighty  pieces  of  cannon  ren- 
dered useless.  Pictou,  the  brave  leader  who  repelled  the 
French  onset,  and  Ponsonby,  who  led  the  charge,  both  fell  in 
the  moment  of  their  brilliant  success. 

And  now  the  massive  columns  of  the  French  turned  upon 
the  British  centre.  There  Wellington  commanded,  and  Na- 
poleon animated  the  attack.  For  four  hours  it  was  the  scene 
of  the  intrepid  charge  of  the  French  cavalry,  and  the  heroic 
resistance  and  repulse  of  the  British  infantry. 

Thus  the  battle  raged  long  past  the  hour  of  noon,  and  the 
Prussians  under  their  brave  old  marshal  had  not  yet  come  up. 
82* 


378  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

They  had  begun  their  march  by  daybreak,  but  the  route  lay 
through  forest  roads  made  deep  and  miry  by  recent  rains, 
crossed  by  rivulets  which  had  become  torrents,  and  inter- 
spersed with  deep  pools.  The  gun-carriages  often  sank 
axle-deep  in  mud,  and  the  exhausted  and  almost  despairing 
soldiers  would  exclaim :  "  We  shall  never  get  on."  "  But  we 
must  get  on,"  urged  Blucher,  "  I  have  given  my  word  to 
Wellington,  and  you  will  not  make  me  break  it.  Courage, 
children,  courage,  for  a  few  hours  longer;  and  then  victory 
will  be  ours."  It  was  past  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon 
when  they  reached  the  scene  of  action. 

But  when  the  fire  of  their  artillery  rung  upon  the  ear, 
Napoleon  felt  that  the  last  decisive  moment  was  fast  ap- 
proaching. One  more  hope  remained.  It  lay  in  the  old 
Imperial  Guard, — those  brave  veterans  of  the  empire,  than 
whom  there  were  on  earth  none  braver.  But  even  they  were 
powerless  to  win  back  the  fatal  day  of  Waterloo ;  and  as  the 
Bun  went  down  there  rose  the  despairing  cry:  ''All  is  lost j 
the  Guard  recoils  I"  Its  departing  rays  beheld  the  flight 
of  the  last  columns  of  the  imperial  army.  Waterloo  was  lost, 
and  Napoleon,  attended  only  by  a  few  followers,  fled  from  the 
battle-field.  He  returned  to  Paris,  and  thence  endeavored  to 
escape  to  America,  but  the  shores  of  France  were  watched  by 
English  cruisers.  Disappointed  in  this  hope,  he  surrendered 
himself  into  the  hands  of  the  captain  of  an  English  vessel  in 
the  harbor  of  Rochfort — 

•'And  trusting  to  his  noblest  foes, 
When  earth  was  all  too  gray  for  chivalry, 
Died  of  their  mercies  'mid  the  desert  sea."* 

The  allies  entered  Paris :  the  old  line  of  French  kings  was 
restored,  and  the  terrible  struggle  of  the  French  Revolution 
was  ended. 

During  the  latter  years  of  these  wars  on  the  continent, 
England   and  the  United   States   had   become  involved   in 

*  At  St.  Helena,  after  an  exile  of  six  years. 


GEORGE    III.  379 

hostilities,  arising  chiefly  from  disputes  about  the  right  of 
search,  and  their  commercial  and  maritime  relations.  The 
war,  begun  in  1812,  lasted  until  the  close  of  1814.  The 
Americans  made  several  invasions  of  Canada,  in  the  hope  of 
annexing  it  to  the  United  States,  but  the  Canadians  very 
generally  remained  loyal  to  the  mother  country,  and  the 
invaders  were  repulsed  In  the  summer  of  1813,  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  the  United  States  sulFered  from  the  depredations  of  a 
British  fleet  commanded  by  Admiral  Cockburn.  In  August, 
1814,  the  British  entered  Washington,  and  burned  the  pubHc 
buildings.  In  the  following  month  they  threatened  the  city 
of  Baltimore,  but  were  repulsed,  and  soon  after  abandoned 
the  Atlantic  sea-board. 

In  the  naval  combats  which  occurred  during  this  war,  both 
on  the  ocean  and  on  the  lakes,  the  Americans,  under  their 
intrepid  commanders,  Hull,  Decatur,  Perry,  and  McDonough, 
achieved  some  noble  triumphs  over  the  hitherto  invincible 
navy  of  England.  Early  in  1815  the  battle  of  New  Orleans 
was  fought.  General  Jackson  repulsed  the  English  com- 
mander, with  the  loss  of  only  thirteen  men,  whilst  the  British 
numbered  nearly  one  thousand  in  killed  alone.  A  few  weeks 
before  this  battle,  which  was  fought  on  the  8th  of  January, 
commissioners  who  had  met  for  this  purpose  at  Ghent, 
in  Holland,  had  signed  a  treaty  of  peace  between  the 
two  countries.  Hostilities  ceased  immediately  after  the  pub- 
lication of  this  treaty. 

During  the  wars  of  the  French  Revolution,  the  Barbary 
pirates  had  ravaged  at  will  the  great  inland  sea  of  Europe. 
They  were  the  terror  of  every  sail,  which,  engaged  in  the 
peaceful  enterprises  of  commerce,  passed  the  Straits  of  Gib- 
raltar, and  ships  of  all  nations  had  furnished  captives  for  the 
dungeons  of  Algiers.  One  Neapofitan  lady,  the  mother  of 
eight  children,  had  endured  an  imprisonment  of  thirteen 
years,  during  which  six  of  her  family  who  were  confined  with 
her  had  died.  In  1816  the  British  government  sent  Lord 
Exmouth  to  the  coast  of  Barbary  to  demand  reparation,  and 
compel   these  powers  to  give  up  their  practice  of  making 


880  HISTORY    OP   ENGLAND. 

Christians  slaves.  Tunis  and  Tripoli  acceded  to  these  de- 
mands, but  Algiers  hesitated,  on  the  ground  that  being  a 
subject  of  Turkey,  she  could  enter  into  no  treaty  without  the 
consent  of  that  government.  An  embassy  was  sent  to  the 
sultan,  but  before  any  answer  could  be  returned,  the  Alge- 
rines  committed  so  gross  an  outrage  on  the  fla*'-  of  Great 
Britain,  that  the  British  government  determined  to  destroy 
this  stronghold  of  piracy.  A  fleet  commanded  by  Lord  Ex- 
mouth  was  sent  to  Algiers.  The  city,  built  on  a  hillside, 
which  rises  from  the  sea,  presented  an  imposing  and  for- 
midable appearance.  It  was  well  defended  with  fortifications, 
batteries,  and  gunboats.  On  the  27th  of  August,  Lord  Kx- 
mouth  entered  the  harbor,  and  sent  to  the  Dey  a  flag,  with 
the  demands  of  the  British  government.  An  answer  was 
promised  in  the  course  of  two  hours,  but  as  none  came  at 
the  appointed  time,  Lord  Exmouth  opened  a  fire  upon  the 
town.  At  four  o'clock,  p.m.,  the  British  fired  some  Algerine 
ships  in  the  harbor :  the  flames  spread  to  the  arsenals  and 
stores  on  the  shore,  and  when  on  the  following  morning  the 
Dey  sent  in  his  submission,  his  capital  presented  a  melancholy 
appearance.  A  treaty  was  entered  into,  by  which  three 
thousand  and  three  captives  were  liberated,  and  the  abolition 
of  Christian  slavery  was  promised  by  the  government  of 
Algiers. 

On  the  29th  of  January,  1820,  King  George  III.  died,  in 
the  eighty-second  year  of  his  age,  and  the  sixtieth  of  his 
reign.  For  nearly  ten  years,  attacks  of  insanity  had  ren- 
dered him  wholly  incapable  of  administering  the  govern- 
ment, and  since  February,  1811,  it  had  been  conducted  by  a 
regency,  having  the  Prince  of  Wales  at  its  head.  The 
Prince-Regent  now  succeeded  to  the  crown,  with  the  title  of 
George  IV. 

Questions. — Give  an  account  of  the  "Armed  Neutrality." — De- 
scribe the  battle  of  Copenhagen. — Mention  the  circumstances  which 
put  an  end  to  the  **  Armed  Neutrality." — What  misfortune  befell  the 
French  army  in  Egypt? — Describe  Napoleon's  position  in  the  spring 


GEORGE   IV.  381 

of  1804. — Repeat  the  account  of  the  battle  of  Trafalgar, — Relate  the 
circumstances  which  brought  on  the  Peninsular  War. — Describe  the 
operations  of  the  war  in  Spain  during  the  year  1808. — Give  the 
account  of  the  battle  of  Corunna. — What  was  the  character  of  the 
war  in  Spain? — Describe  the  difficulties  which  beset  the  Dulie  of 
Wellington. — Relate  his  subsequent  successes. — What  was  the  issue 
of  Napoleon's  invasion  of  Russia '? — Describe  the  position  and  con- 
duct of  Napoleon  during  the  year  1814. — When  did  he  return  to 
France,  and  how  was  he  received  ? — What  were  Napoleon's  designs 
at  this  time? — Describe  the  conduct  of  W^ellington. — Describe  the 
battles  of  Quatre-Bras  and  Ligny. — The  battle  of  Waterloo. — State 
the  results  of  this  conflict. 

Mention  the  principal  operations  of  the  war  in  America  during 
the  years  1812-13. — Describe  the  battle  of  New  Orleans. — Describe 
the  outrages  of  the  Barbary  pirates. — What  was  the  result  of  Lord 
Exmouth's  embassy  to  the  Barbary  powers? — Describe  the  attack 
on  Algiers,  and  state  the  result, — When  did  George  III.  die? — 
Who  succeeded  to  the  throne  ? 


CHAPTER  LXII. 

GEORGE    IV. 

TRIAL      OP      THE      QUEEN  —  CATHOLIC      EMANCIPATION  —  PARLIAUENTART 
REFORM. 

In  1795,  when  Prince  of  Wales.  George  had  married  his 
cousin,  the  Princess  Caroline  of  Brunswick.  The  union 
proved  an  extremely  unhappy  one,  and  in  1814  the  queen 
went  to  reside  on  the  continent. 

Charges  of  immoral  conduct  having  been  alleged  on  the 
part  of  her  husband,  efforts  were  made  on  his  accession  to 
induce  her  to  remain  abroad,  and  renounce  the  style  and 
title  of  queen  of  Great  Britain.  To  all  these  propositions 
she  gave  a  decided  refusal.  Irritated  by  the  indignities 
offered  her  at  foreign  courts,  where  English  ambassadors  were 
forbidden  to  recognise  her,  and  especially  incensed  at  the 


382  HISTORY    OJ/"    ENGLAND. 

omission  of  her  name  in  the  prayers  for  the  royal  family,  she 

returned  to  England,  and  demanded  an  investigation  of  her 

conduct.      A   bill   to   deprive   her  of  her  rights  as  queen, 

and  to  dissolve  her  marriage  with  the  king,  was  proposed, 

and  she  was  tried   before  the  House  of  Lords.     Although 

the  nation  were  by  no  means  convinced  of  Queen  Caroline's 

entire  innocence,  they  regarded   her  in  great  measure  as  a 

persecuted  woman,  and  so  unpopular  were  the  proceedin<»-s  of 

the  king  and  his  ministers,  that  after  a  trial  of  three  months 

they  were  obliged  to  abandon  the  bill  and  drop  the  prosecu- 

^g^^     tion.     In  the  summer  of  the  following  year  the  grave 

closed  over  the  sufferings  and  sorrows  of  this  unhappy 

lady,  and  saved  the  ministers  the  painful  task  of  inquiring 

into  her  fitness  to  preside  as  queen  in  an  English  court. 

In  turning  to  the  domestic  history  of  Great  Britain  during 

jygg     the  long  period  of  the  French  Kevolution,  three  im- 

t"       portant  topics — Catholic  Emancipation,  Parliamentary 

Keform,  and  the  Abolition  of  Slavery — demand  our 

attention.     These  objects  were  all  subsequently  attained  and 

within  a  few  years  of  each  other.     We  will  consider  their 

history  in  the  order  in  which  the  bills  passed  in  parliament. 

First :  Catholic  Emancipation. 

When,  in  the  year  1800,  the  union  of  England  and  Ireland 
was  contemplated,  Mr  Pitt,  then  at  the  head  of  the  adminis- 
tration, held  out  to  those  Roman  Catholics  who  were  most 
violently  opposed  to  this  measure,  the  assurance  that  as  soon 
as  the  union  should  be  effected,  all  political  disabilities  would 
be  removed,  and  Romanists  allowed  an  equal  participation  in 
civil  rights  with  the  Protestant  subjects  of  the  realm.     The 
scruples  of  George  III.  were  not  to  be  overcome ;  the  assur- 
ance  could  not  be  realized,  and  Mr.   Pitt  deemed  himself 
in  honor  bound    to  resign  his   position   as  prime  minister. 
This  he  did   in   February,    1801,   after  having  guided  the 
councils  of  Great  Britain  with  consummate  ability  for 
the  long  period  of  seventeen  years. 
The  discontents  of  the  disappointed  Irish  increased.     In 


QEORGK    IV.  383 

1803  a  short-lived  rebellion  broke  out,  headed  by  a  young 
lawyer  named  Robert  Emmett.  lie,  with  the  few  who  joined 
him,  were  seized  and  executed.  The  youth,  talents,  and 
enthusiasm  of  this  misguided  patriot,  together  with  his  mourn- 
ful end,  have  combined  to  make  him  an  object  of  romantic 
interest. 

The  question  of  relief  for  the  Roman  Catholics  from 
political  disabilities,  came  up  in  parliament  almost  every 
session ;  but  so  strong  was  public  sentiment  against  it,  and  so 
violent  the  opposition  of  the  government,  and  especially  the 
prejudices  of  the  aged  king  and  his  successor,  that  no  bill 
granting  political  privileges  to  Roman  Catholics  could  be 
carried.  In  the  year  1821,  a  horrible  famine,  occasioned 
by  the  failure  of  the  potato  crop,  broke  out  in  Ireland. 
Disease  followed,  and  misery  and  death  spread  over  this 
unhappy  country.  In  the 'year  1824,  the  people  established 
a  Catholic  Association,  to  obtain,  if  possible,  by  union,  agita- 
tion, and  clamor,  what  had  been  denied  to  their  petitions  and 
remonstrances.  The  state  of  Ireland  during  the  next  six 
1834  y^^^'^  ^^^  miserable  in  the  extreme.  The  '^Agitators," 
as  they  were  called,  headed  by  their  chief,  Daniel 
O'Connell,  a  lawyer  of  eminence  and  ability,  increased 
throughout  the  country.  Orange  Societies  and  Brunswick 
Clubs  were  organized  by  the  Protestants,  and  the  old  feeling 
of  bitter  antagonism  aroused  in  all  its  strength. 

At  length  the  views  of  sovereign   and  cabinet  gave  way 
before  the  miseries  of  Ireland.     The  bill  for  the  relief  of  the 
Roman  Catholics  was  introduced  by  Mr.  Peel,  hitherto  one 
of  the  firmest  opposers  of  the  measure,  on  the  5th  of  March. 
1829.      The   king,    the    Duke    of  WelHngton,    then   prime 
1838     ^iiiiiistcr,  and  other  members  of  the  government,  had 
and      long  been  opposed  to  the  removal  of  political  disa- 
bilities from  the  Roman  Cathclics,  but  alarmed  at  the 
state  of  Ireland,    and   dreading   civil   war,   they  were    now 
induced  to  yield.     It  was  a  touchino-  scene  when  the  Iron 
Duke,  that  veteran  soldier,  so  long  the  conscientious  foe  to 
Catholic    Emancipation,    declared    in    parliament:    "Rather 


to 
1839. 


884  HISTOKY    OF    ENGLAND. 

than  a  country  I  love  should  be  visited  with  the  calamities 
which  I  have  seen — with  the  unutterable  horrors  of  a  civil 
war — I  would  run  any  risk ;  I  would  make  any  sacrifice ;  1 
would  freely  lay  down  my  life." 

By  this  bill,  which  passed  the  10th  of  April,  1829,  the 
Koman  Cathohcs  received  equal  political  rights  with  other 
English  subjects,  saving  a  few  special  exceptions.  No  Roman 
Catholic  can  be  lord  chancellor,  or  keeper  ol'  the  great  seal,  oi- 
lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland  Nor  can  he  receive  an  appoint- 
ment in  any  Protestant  university  or  college.  All  Roman 
Catholics  holding  civil  office  are  bound  by  an  oath  to  support 
the  existing  institutions  of  the  state,  and  not  to  injure  those 
of  the  church. 

We  turn  now  to  the  second  subject  which  demands  our 
attention. 

During  the  American  war  there  were  frequent  complaints 
of  the  imperfect  representation  of  the  nation  in  the  House  of 
Commons.  Associations  were  organized  for  the  purpose  of 
petitioning  for  a  reform  in  parliament,  and  the  subject  was 
brought  forward  by  Mr.  Pitt  in  1782.  His  motion  for  an 
investigation  into  the  state  of  the  national  representation,  met 
with  strong  opposition,  and  was  lost.  Resolutions  for  the 
same  object  met  with  the  same  fate  the  following  year,  and  a 
similar  bill  was  lost  in  1785. 

When  the  subject  again  came  up,  in  1700,  on  the  motion 
of  Mr.  Flood,  an  eloquent  Irish  orator,  the  French  Revolution 
had  begun.  The  agitation  of  men's  minds  was  such,  that 
Mr.  Pitt,  deprecating  any  measure  that  would  affect  the 
British  constitution  at  such  a  time,  opposed  the  motion.  In 
the  session  of  1793  a  motion  for  parliamentary  reform  was 
introduced  by  Mr.  Grey,  who  had  prepared  a  scheme  for  this 
object.  It  was  stated  by  the  mover,  that  the  total  number  of 
representatives  for  Scotland  was  only  one  greater  than  that 
for  the  county  of  Cornwall ;  moreover,  that  large  and  flourish- 
ing towns,  such  as  Birmingham,  Manchester,  Leeds,  &c., 
were  not.  represented  at  all,  whilst  old  decayed  places,  with 


GEORGE    IV.  385 

scarcely  a  score  of  voters,  sent  members  to  parliament.  These 
latter  were  called  rotten  boroughs.  One  of  them  in  par- 
ticular, Old  Sarum,  furnished  the  most  glaring  instance  of 
the  defect  in  the  national  representation.  Two  miles  from 
Salisbury,  in  Wiltshire,  lay  a  few  barren  acres  and  deserted 
dwellings ;  and  yet  this  uninhabited  spot  was  represented  in 
the  British  parliament  by  two  members,  whilst  large  and 
populous  manufacturing  towns  were  denied  the  right  of 
sending  even  one.  It  was  also  asserted  that  a  large  number 
of  the  freeholders  of  the  kingdom  were  deprived  of  a  share 
in  the  elections  on  account  of  religious  opinions ;  Papists  not 
being  allowed  to  vote,  and  in  some  places  Protestant  dissenters 
being  debarred  this  right.  Mr.  Grey's  bill  was  opposed  by 
Pitt  and  Burke,  who  feared  any  change  in  the  constitution, 
lest  it  should  lead  to  the  introduction  of  French  revolu- 
tionary principles.  The  motion  was  lost  by  an  overwhelming 
majority. 

When  the  restoration  of  peace  enabled  the  people 

to  turn  to  other  interests  than  those  of  war,  the 
subject  of  the  unequal  representation  of  the  nation  in  par- 
liament became  an  all-engrossing  topic.  Among  the  lower 
classes  it  grew  into  a  sort  of  popular  idol.  When  scarcity 
prevailed,  through  failure  of  the  crops,  or  the  high  prices  of 
food,  which  are  among  the  evils  of  war,  or  when  the  intro- 
duction of  new  machinery  gave  alarm  to  ignorant  operatives, 
relief  was  looked  for  through  a  reform  of  the  constitution. 
Meetings  were  held  to  petition  for  reform.  In  the  year 
1819,  an  immense  meeting  of  this  kind,  headed  by  a  radical 
reformer  named  Hunt,  was  convened  at  Manchester.  The 
assembly  was  declared  illegal,  and  the  magistrates  were 
ordered  to  arrest  the  leaders  of  it.  Unable  to  efiect  this, 
without  military  force,  they  called  in  the  aid  of  the  soldiery. 
A  melee  ensued,  in  which  five  or  six  lives  were  lost.  This 
produced  the  greatest  indignation  throughout  the  country, 
and  inflamed  the  passions  of  many  against  the  government. 
isao     ^^  *^®  following  year,  just  after  the  accession  of 

George  IV.,   occurred  the   Cato  Street  Conspiracy, 
33  2B 


386  HISTOHV    UF    ENGLAND. 

SO  named  from  the  meeting-place  of  those  engaged  in  the 
plot.  Its  design  was  to  murder  the  ministers  whilst  assembled 
at  a  cabinet  dinner  at  Lord  Harrowby's.  The  conspiracy  was 
betrayed,  and  the  leaders  of  it  were  seized  and  executed. 
Although  opposed  by  George  IV.,  by  his  ministers,  and  by  the 
peers  generally,  the  cause  of  parliamentary  reform  gained 
isao  strength.  Year  by  year  more  intelligent  views  of  the 
to       necessity  and  justice,  as  well  as  the  beneJSts,  which  a 

1 830 

wise  measure  of  reform  would  confer,  prevailed  among 
all  classes,  and  few  sessions  of  parliament  passed  without  the 
subject  being  introduced  by  its  prominent  supporters.  Lord 
Grey'  Mr.  Brougham,  and  Lord  John  Russell  Associations 
called  Political  Unions  were  formed  in  all  the  large  manufac- 
turing towns,  in  order  to  raise  such  an  outcry  for  parliamentary 
reform,  as  should  compel  the  passage  of  the  measure  in  spite 
of  all  opposition.  Such  was  the  position  of  this  subject  in 
the  year  1830,  when  George  IV.  died,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother,  William  Henry,  Duke  of  Cla^^ence. 

Questions. — Whom  had  George  IV  married? — To  what  indigni- 
ties was  she  subjected  ? — How  did  she  resent  this  treatment? — Relate 
what  is  told  of  the  queen's  trial. — Name  the  three  topics  prominent 
in  the  domestic  history  of  Great  Britain  during  this  period. — What 
assurances  had  been  given  to  the  Roman  Catholics  by  Mr.  Pitt  ? — 
Relate  his  conduct  in  this  connection. — Describe  the  Irish  rebellion 
of  1803. — What  obstacles  delayed  the  passage  of  a  Catholic  Relief 
Bill? — Describe  the  condition  of  Ireland  during  the  year  1821. — 
What  was  the  object  of  the  Catholic  Reform  Association? — Describe 
the  condition  of  Ireland  between  the  years  1824-1829.— Describe  the 
passage  of  the  Catholic  Emancipation  Bill. — State  the  provisions  of 
this  bill. — What  was  the  result  of  the  petitions  for  parliamentary 
reform  between  the  years  1782-1785? — Relate  the  history  of  this 
question  during  the  session  of  1793. — When  was  the  subject  re- 
newed?— Describe  the  state  of  feeling  existing  in  the  country  with 
regard  to  parliamentary  reform. — State  the  results  of  the  meeting 
at  Manchester  in  1819.— Give  the  history  of  the  Cato  Street  Con- 
spiracy. 


WILLIAM    IV.  387 

CHAPTER  LXIII. 

WILLIAM   IV. 

PARLIAMENTARY  REFORM — MUNICIPAL  REFORM — ABOLITION  OP  THE  SLAVE- 
TRADE — SLAVERY  EMANCIPATION    BILL — POOR    LAWS — CRIMINAL  LAW. 

On  the  opening  of  the  ne.w  parliament  after  the  accession 
of  William  IV.,  Earl  Grrey,  the  leader  of  the  Whigs,  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  and  Mr.  Brougham,  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, introduced  the  all-engrossing  topic  of  parliamentary 
reform.  The  former  contended  that  it  was  at  that  time  an 
imperative  duty  to  secure  the  institutions  of  Great  Britain, 
by  introducing  into  them  a  temperate  measure  of  reform. 
The  Duke  of  Wellington,  in  reply,  stated  as  his  conviction, 
that  England  possessed  the  best  legislature  in  the  world,  and, 
holding  this  opinion,  that  he  should  consider  it  his  duty  to 
oppose  any  measure  for  the  reform  of  the  constitution.  This 
speech  overthrew  the  duke's  ministry  The  accession  of  Earl 
Grey,  who  had  been  for  years  a  consistent  advocate  of  parlia- 
mentary reform,  to  the  premiership,  followed.  On  the  1st 
March,  1831,  Lord  John  Russell  introduced  a  reform  bill, 
but  the  strength  of  the  opposition  was  such,  that,  foreseeing 
the  failure  of  the  bill,  the  king,  with  great  reluctance,  agreed 
to  dissolve  parliament. 

The  new  parliament  met  in  June,  and  the  bill, 
after  warm  debate,  and  every  delay  which  a  strong 
opposition  could  invent,  passed  the  House  of  Commous  on 
the  21st  of  September.  This  event  rejoiced  the  nation. 
"  Before  daylight,  the  news  was  on  its  way  into  the  country; 
and  wherever  it  spread,  it  floated  the  flags,  and  woke  up  the 
bells,  and  filled  the  air  with  shouts  and  music."  These 
feelings  of  joy  were  soon  followed  by  anxiety  for  the  fate 
of  the  bill  in  the  House  of  Lords.  In  that  house  it  was  lost 
by  a  majority  of  forty-one.  The  king  prorogued  parliament 
to  the   6th   December.     Meanwhile   the  failure   of  the  bill 


388  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

produced  the  greatest  excitement  throughout  the  land.  At 
Bristol,  Derby,  Nottingham,  Birmingham,  Manchester,  and  in 
fact  all  over'the  kingdom,  mobs  and  riotous  proceedings  testi- 
fied the  feeling  of  large  bodies  of  the  people. 

When  parliament  reassembled,  Lord  John  Russell  again 
brought  in  a  reform  bill.  Again  the  ministry  found  them- 
selves unable  to  carry  the  measure  through  the  House  of 
Lords,  and  they  resigned  their  places.  The  resignation  of 
Earl  Grey  and  his  colleagues  produced  such  a  storm  of  indig- 
nation, that  the  king  was  forced  to  bow  before  it,  and  recall 
the  discarded  ministers.  This  took  place  on  the  15th  of  May, 
1832,  and  on  the  4th  of  June,  the  opposition  gave  way,  and 
the  reform  bill  passed  A  few  days  later  it  received  the 
royal  assent,  and  was  hailed  as  a  law  of  the  land  by  universal 
festivals  and  rejoicings.  By  the  reform  bill  all  boroughs  not 
having  two  thousand  inhabitants  were  disfranchised;  those 
containing  less  than  four  thousand  were  only  allowed  to  send 
each  one  member  to  parliament  j  the  right  of  electing  mem- 
bers taken  thus  from  these  borouorhs,  was  bestowed 

1833.  .  °      ' 

upon  the  large  manufacturing  towns,  upon  four  dis- 
tricts in  London,  and  upon  certain  divisions  of  the  larger 
counties  hitherto  inadequately  represented. . 

Three  years  later,  another  reform,  in  a  measure  consequent 
upon  that  of  parliament,  was  effected.  This  was  a  recon- 
struction of  the  corporations  of  towns  and  boroughs.  The 
powers  and  funds  of  municipal  institutions  had  long  been  in 
the  hands  of  close  corporations  : — men  self-elected, — respon- 
sible to  no  one  for  their  administration, — the  records  of  whose 
transactions  were  never  exhibited,  and  among  whom,  in  many 
instances,  the  greatest  amount  of  corruption  was  known  to 
prevail.  The  funds  were  misapplied,  justice  was  withheld, 
and  for  the  large  mass  of  honest  and  respectable  citizens  there 
was  no  appeal  against  this  municipal  tyranny.     At  length,  in 

1835,  a  law  was  enacted  by  which  this  disgraceful 

1835. 

system  was  broken  up.  Henceforth  the  affairs  of 
each  incorporated  borough  were  to  be  administered  by  a  town 
council,  consisting  of  a  mayor,  aldermen,  and  burgesses,  and 


WILLIAM   IV.  389 

the  election  of  these  officers  thrown  op'en  to  the  inhabitants 

under  certain  qualifications,  regarding  property  and  residence. 

The   year   following   the   reform   bill,   another   important 

legislative   act,  passed  the  houses  of  parliament — a 

bill  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  all  the  dominions 

of  Great  Britain. 

As  early  as  1783,  the  Quakers  had  presented  a  petition  to 
parliament  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  the  horrors  of 
which  had  awakened  the  sympathies  of  these  benevolent 
people.  A  few  years  later,  William  Wilberforce,  one 
of  the  purest  and  most  Christian  statesmen  of  that 
day,  determined  to  make  the  cause  one  of  the  two  great  objects 
of  his  parHamentary  life.  The  other  was  the  reformation  of 
manners.  Out  of  the  house  it  numbered  among  its  advocates 
Granville  Sharp,  Thornton,  Clarkson,  and  other  noted  friends 
of  humanity.  In  May,  1788,  Wilberforce  being  absent  from 
parliament,  on  account  of  ill-health,  his  friend,  William  Pitt, 
moved  that  the  house  should,  "  in  the  ensuing  session,  take 
into  consideration  the  circumstances  of  the  African  slave-trade, 
complained  of  in  petitions  presented  to  parliament;  and  what 
may  seem  fit  to  be  done."  During  the  discussion  of  this 
motion,  Sir  William  Dolben  called  attention  to  the  sufi"erings 
of  the  negroes  in  the  passage  from  Africa  to  the  West  Indies, 
and  a  bill  for  alleviating  these  sufferings  was  passed. 

The  time  given  to  the  consideration  of  this  question,  du^ring 
the  ensuing  sessions  of  parliament,  was  chiefly  spent  in  listen- 
ing to  evidence  on  the  subject  of  the  slave-trade.     At  length, 
in  1791,  Wilberforce  asked  leave  to  bring  in  a  bill  to  prevent 
any  further  importation  of  slaves  into  the  British  West  Indies. 
At  the  close  of  an  able  speech,  which  he  delivered  in  support 
of  the  motion,  this  Christian  statesman  made  the  following 
solemn  apppeal : — "  There  will  be  a  day  of  retribution 
wherein  we  shall  have  to  give  account  of  all  the 
talents,  faculties,  and  opportunities  which  have  been  intrusted 
to  us.     Let  it  not  then  appear  that  our  superior  power  has 
been    employed   to   oppress    our   fellow-creatures,    and    our 
superior  light  to  darken  the  creation  of  our  God.'' 
33* 


390  History  of  England. 

The  question  of  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade  was  sup- 
ported by  Fox  and  Pitt,  but  met  with  such  strong  and 
determined  opposition  on  the  part  of  West  India  merchants, 
planters,  and  other  influential  bodies,  that  the  motion  was 
lost.  A  bill,  however,  passed  for  founding  at  Sierra  Leone  a 
trading  colony.  This  was  done  in  the  hope  of  promoting  a 
lawful  and  eventually  profitable  trade  with  the  African  coast, 
and  thus  opening  a  way  for  the  work  of  civilization  and 
Christian  conversion  in  that  part  of  the  world.  After  a 
struggle  of  twenty  years'  continuance,  Wilberforce  gained  the 
object  to  which  he  had  devoted  life,  fortune,  and  every  energy 
of  a  gifted  mind  and  benevolent  heart.  On  the  23d  of 
March,  1807,  a  bill  for  the  aboHtion  of  the  slave-trade  passed 
the  British  parliament.  So  great  had  been  the  change  in 
public  sentiment,  since  the  day  when  this  motion  was 
first  made  and  lost,  and  so  clearly  was  the  iniquity  of 
the  slave-trade  now  perceived  by  the  nation,  that  only  sixteen 
voices  were  found  bold  enough  to  oppose  the  overwhelming 
majority  which  rose  in  behalf  of  this  humane  and  righteous 
cause. 

Twenty-six  years  were  yet  to  pass  before  a  bill  for  the  total 
abolition  of  the  institution  of  slavery  in  the  British 

1833.  .  -^  . 

West  Indies  should  be  carried  through  parliament. 
A  motion  to  this  effect  was  introduced  into  the  House  of 
Commons  by  Sir  Thomas  Fowell  Buxton  in  the  year  1823. 
The  following  ten  were  years  of  incessant  effort  on  the  part 
of  the  friends  of  this  measure,  who  at  length  succeeded. 
The  bill  passed  on  the  30th  August,  1833.  On  the  1st 
of  August,  1834,  eight  hundred  thousand  slaves  were  eman- 
cipated in  the  British  West  Indies,  and  twenty  millions 
sterling  were  paid  to  the  slaveholders  as  compensation. 

Besides  the  three  prominent  reforms,  the  history  of  which 
has  just  been  given,  there  were  other  evils  connected  with 
the  operation  of  English  law,  which  for  years  had  occupied 
the  attention  of  humane  and  wise  statesmen.  The  poor,  the 
criminal,  and  the  game  laws  were  especially  oppressive  to 


WILLIAM  rv.  391 

those  immediately  affected  by  them,  as  well  as  injurious  to 
every  class  of  society. 

In  1832,  a  commission  was  appointed  to  investigate  the 
condition  of  the  parishes  throughout  England  and  Wales. 
It  was  shown  by  their  report,  that,  although  millions  of  pounds 
were  yearly  collected  for  poor-rates,  yet  the  operation  of  the 
poor-laws  was  such  as  rather  to  increase  than  to  relieve  poverty, 
— to  check  honest  industry  and  to  encourage  vice  and  crime. 
In  1834,  a  bill  for  the  amendment  of  the  poor-laws,  founded 
on  the  report  of  this  commission,  was  passed  in  parliament. 
It  provided  for  a  system  of  well-arranged  efficient  workhouses, 
into  which  the  destitute  might  be  admitted,  those  who  were 
able-bodied  obtaining  employment  therein,  whilst  the 
sick  and  aged  received  the  requisite  support  and  care. 
So  effectual  was  the  operation  of  this  law,  that  in  five  years 
after  its  enactment  the  poor-rates  had  decreased  from  seven 
to  four  millions  sterling ; — honest  industry  was  protected  and 
encouraged,  and  the  pauperism  which  had  hitherto  supported 
itself  by  crime  and  beggary  was  greatly  reduced. 

Sir  Thomas  More,  the  upright  chancellor  of  Henry  YIII.^s 
time,  says,  in  his  Utopia,  written  in  the  year  1516  :  '^  Nor  so 
stoical  ordinances  are  to  be  borne  withal,  as  to  count  all 
offences  of  such  equality,  that  the  killing  of  a  man,  or  the 
taking  of  his  money  from  him,  were  both  one  matter."  And 
yet  the  criminal  laws  of  England,  in  each  succeeding  century, 
had  grown  more  and  more  severe,  until  they  had  indeed 
become  such  '^stoical  ordinances"  as  were  not  "to  be  borne." 
The  penalty  of  death  was  inflicted  almost  without  distinction 
of  crime.  Such  offences  as  stealing  to  the  amount  of  forty 
shillings  from  a  dwelling-house,  or  picking  a  pocket  of  five 
shillings,  or  robbing  a  bleachiog-ground  or  a  coal-vessel,  was 
each  subjected  to  capital  punishment.  The  con^quence  was 
that  the  laws  were  but  partially  executed,  and  crime  increased 
at  a  fearful  raib.  Thieves  were  encouraged  in  their  wicked- 
ness, because  few  were  willing  to  bring  a  fellow-being  to  trial 
for  stealing  a  small  amount  of  property,  when  they  knew  the 
penalty  to  be  death. 


892  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

Sir  Samuel  Romilly,  a  statesman  ever  wise  and  active  for 
good,  labored  during  the  entire  course  of  his  long  and  valu- 
able life  to  procure  an  amelioration  of  these  cruel  laws.  He 
succeeded  in  getting  the  penalty  of  death  remitted 
for  stealing  from  the  person  to  the  amount  of  five  shil- 
lings, and  subsequently  for  stealing  from  bleaching-grounds. 
After  the  death  of  Komilly,  Sir  James  Mcintosh,  Sir  Robert 
Peel,  and  others  labored  in  this  good  cause.  An  amelioration 
of  the  criminal  code  was  obtained  by  the  latter  statesman  in 
1827.  Ten  years  later,  a  bill  passed  the  houses  of  parliament, 
abolishing  the  death  penalty  in  twenty-one  out  of  thirty-one 
cases  in  which  it  had  hitherto  existed. 

On  the  20th  of  June,  1837,  William  IV.  died.  Alexan- 
drina  Victoria,  the  daughter  of  his  brother,  the  Duke  of 
Kent,  succeeded  to  the  throne. 


Questions. — How  was  the  question  of  political  reform  treated  in 
the  first  parliament  of  William  IV.  ? — Give  the  history  of  Lord  John 
Russell's  bill  of  March,  1831. — What  was  the  effect  of  the  resigna- 
tion of  the  ministry? — When  and  under  what  circumstances  did  the 
reform  bill  pass? — Describe  the  provisions  of  this  bill. — Describe 
the  condition  of  municipal  corporations  prior  to  1835. — What  reform 
was  eflfected  in  that  year. — Who  were  the  earliest  advocates  of  the 
abolition  of  the  African  slave-trade? — Relate  the  history  of  Pitt's 
motion  on  this  question  in  1788. — Describe  Wilberforce's  advocacy 
of  this  cause  in  1791. — What  occasioned  the  defeat  of  this  bill? 

With  what  object  was  a  colony  founded  at  Sierra  Leone? — When 
did  the  bill  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade  pass? — When  was 
slavery  in  the  West  Indies  abolished  ? — What  number  was  emanci- 
pated ? — How  were  the  planters  remunerated  ? — Give  the  report  of 
the  committee  appointed  for  the  inspection  of  parishes  in  the  year 
1832. — State  the  provisions  of  the  poor-law  of  1834. — Describe  the 
criminal  law  of  England  prior  to  1837. — What  was  the  result  of  its 
severity? — When  did  William  IV.  die  ?— Who  succeeded  to  the 
throne  ? 


QUEEN    VICTORIA.  393 

CHAPTER  LXIV. 

QUEEN   VICTORIA. 

THE      QUEEN  —  CHARTISTS  —  CORN-LAW  —  REPEAL      AGITATION  —  FATHER 
MATTHEW — MAY.NOOTH    COLLEGE — FAMINE — INSURRECTION. 

A  YOUNG  queen  of  eighteen  years,  reared  in  healthful, 
simple  habits,  truthful,  conscientious,  and  with  a  heart  full 
of  devotion  to  her  subjects,  ascended  the  throne.  No 
wonder  that  the  hearts  and  hopes  of  the  nation  clus- 
tered around  her.  From  childhood  she  had  been  noted  for 
punctuality  and  strict  adherence  to  principle.  A  simple 
anecdote  of  these  early  years  well  illustrates  her  habits  in 
these  respects. 

One  summer,  when  at  Tunbridge  Wells,  her  childish  fancy 
was  attracted  by  some  little  article  which  she  greatly  desired 
as  a  present  for  one  of  her  cousins.  Finding,  however,  that 
she  had  not  sufficient  ready  money  to  buy  it,  this  young 
princess,  too  conscientious  to  incur  even  a  trifling  debt,  cheer- 
fully gave  up  the  purchase  until  the  reception  of  her  quarter's 
allowance  should  enable  her  to  pay  for  it.  The  shopkeeper 
kept  the  article  for  her,  and  at  seven  o'clock  on  the  morning 
of  quarter-day,  with  all  the  eagerness  of  childhood,  Victoria 
was  seen  riding  down  on  her  little  donkey  to  secure  the 
desired  purchase.  The  guarantee  which  this  little  incident 
in  the  child  gave  against  royal  extravagance  when  she  should 
become  a  queen,  has  been  amply  fulfilled. 

Three  years  after  her  accession,  Victoria,  to  the  general 
satisfaction  of  her  people,  married  Albert,  Prince  of  Saxe- 
Coburg  and  Grotha. 

For  several  years  bad  seasons,  and  consequently  bad  har- 
vests, had  produced  great  distress  throughout  England.  The 
condition  of  agricultural  laborers  and  manufacturing  opera- 
tives was  dreadful  in  the  extreme.  The  price  of  food  was 
exorbitant,  whilst  wages  were  low,  and  employment  scarce. 


394  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

Many  of  the  operatives  united  in  Trade  Associations,  de- 
manding work  and  higher  wages.  Soon  they  held  torchlight 
processions,  burned  factories,  assaulted  their  employers,  and 
showed  a  determination  to  obtain  redress  by  physical  force. 

One  of  the  most  formidable  of  these  insurrections,  was  the 
strike  of  the  Cotton-Spinners'  Association  in  Glasgow.  This 
took  place  in  the  spring  of  1837,  upon  which,  all  the  works 
of  that  description  throughout  Scotland  were  stopped,  and 
more  than  fifty  thousand  persons  deprived  of  the  means  of 
subsistence.  New  hands  employed  by  the  manufacturers, 
were  so  much  intimidated  by  the  conspirators,  that  they 
dared  not  enter  the  works. 

At  length,  information  having  been  obtained  of  the  number 
and  place  of  meeting  of  the  ringleaders,  the  sherifT  of  Lan- 
arkshire, with  twenty  policemen,  succeeded  in  arresting  the 
whole  committee,  numbering  sixteen.  No  sooner  were  these 
men  arrested  than  the  intimidation  ceased,  and  all  the  cotton- 
mills  went  again  into  operation. 

The  evidence  elicited  on  the  trial  of  some  of  the  conspira- 
tors, proved  the  existence  of  "  secret  select  committees,'* 
ready  to  perpetrate  the  most  fearful  crimes  to  attain  the 
objects  of  the  strike.  These  disclosures  roused  public  opinion ; 
and  since  then,  insurrections  of  this  nature,  however  violent 
and  formidable,  have  never  been  attended  by  secret  organiza- 
tions for  purposes  of  crime. 

In  the  year  1838,  the  general  discontent  manifested  itself 
in  the  serious  political  combination  known  as  Chartism.  A 
convention  of  Chartist  deputies  met  in  London,  and  presented 
to  parliament  a  petition,  called  a  charter,  signed  by  over  a 
million  of  men.  This  petition  was  drawn  up  on  a  cylinder 
of  parchment,  and  literally  rolled  like  a  wheel  into  the  house. 
It  demanded  the  consideration  of  the  six  following  points : — 
Universal  Sufii-age ; .  Vote  by  Ballot ;  Paid  Representatives 
in  Parliament  j  E({ual  Electoral  Districts :  The  Abolition  of 
a  Property  Qualification ;  and  Annual  Parliaments.  This 
charter  was  presented  in  June,  1839. 

Meanwhile  the   violence  of  the   ignorant  operatives   and 


QUEEN    VICTORIA.  395 

deluded  Chartists  increased.  Htrange  crimes  began  to  abound 
— crimes  perpetrated  by  miserable  operatives  in  manufac- 
turing towns,  or  in  the  collieries,  or  by  farm  servants  in  the 
rural  districts,  who  were  maddened  by  hunger,  and  whose 
worst  passions  were  acted  upon  by  factious  Chartists.  Mur- 
ders were  committed  for  purposes  of  theft.  Holes  were  bored 
in  ships,  that  they  might  be  cast  away,  and  the  wretched 
perpetrators  share  in  the  insurance  money.  Many  of  the 
unemployed  resorted  to  the  practice  of  opium-eating,  to  ward 
off  the  pangs  of  hunger.  In  fact,  the  condition  of  the  work- 
ing-classes in  England  from  the  year  1839  to  1843  was  truly 
frightful.  The  price  of  food,  which  was  ascribed  to  the 
oppressive  operation  of  the  corn-laws,  was  so  high,  that  in 
Home  districts  the  population  was  in  a  state  bordering  hard 
upon  starvation. 

As  early  as  the  year  1815,  parliament  had  passed  a  corn- 
law,  by  which  no  foreign  grain  was  allowed  to  be  imported, 
until  the  price  of  corn  should  have  risen  to  80s.  per  qr. 
This  law  was  passed  in  reply  to  the  clamors  of  the  agricul- 
turists for  protection.  It  was  sorely  oppressive  to  the  manu- 
facturer, the  merchant,  and  all  other  industrial  classes  of  the 
country.  It  met  with  general  approbation  in  parliament, 
where  the  landed  interest  was  strong,  but  even  there,  it  was 
said :  "  We  cannot  persuade  ourselves  that  this  law  will  ever 
contribute  to  produce  plenty,  cheapness,  or  steadiness  of  price, 
....  and  to  confine  the  consumer  of  corn  to  the  produce  of  his 
own  country,  is  to  refuse  to  ourselves  the  benefit  of  that 
provision  which  Providence  itself  has  made  for  equalizing  to 
man  the  variations  of  season  and  of  climate." 

Of  course,  these  laws,  affecting  injuriously  the  mercantile 
and  manufacturing  classes,  met  with  earnest  and  powerful 
opposition.  To  their  operation  was  mainly  ascribed  the  dis- 
tress prevailiog  throughout  the  country.  In  1838,  an  Anti- 
Corn-Law-League  was  formed  at  Manchester,  ''for  establishing 
the  principles  of  free  trade,  especially  in  grain."  It  soon 
gained  members  all  over  the  country,  and  among  them  were 
many   able   writers    and    speakers.      They    investigated   the 


396  HisTony  of  England. 

coudition  of  the  manufacturers  and  other  classes,  and  the 
facts  elicited  were  set  fort^  in  pamphlets,  tracts,  speeches,  and 
ballads,  which  were  distributed  throughout  the  country,  and 
had  great  weight  with  the  people. 

The  eight  years  following  the  formation  of  the  League, 
witnessed  much  political  agitation  on  the  subject,  wliich  was 
greatly  promoted  by  the  distress  prevailing  throughout  the 
country.  Bad  harvests  for  five  successive  seasons,  Chartist 
and  other  insurrections,  the  failure  of  the  potato  crop,  and 
finally  the  application  of  the  principles  of  free  trade  to  other 
articles  of  import,  were  the  combined  causes,  which  led  event- 
ually to  the  repeal  of  the  corn-laws.  The  measure  was  carried 
in  parliament  by  Sir  Robert  Peel  on  the  16th  of  May,  1846. 

He  had  been  for  many  years  a  firm  opponent  of  the  repeal 
of  these  duties.  The  abandonment  of  principles  which  he 
had  avowed  and  supported  during  the  whole  of  his  previous 
political  career,  subjected  him  to  no  small  amount  of  obloquy. 
Shortly  after  the  passage  of  The  Corn  Law  Repeal  Bill,  Sir 
Robert  Peel  resigned  his  office  as  premier.  In  his  last  speech 
in  parliament,  after  alluding  to  the  censures  which  he  had 
endured,  he  added  the  following  consoling  assurance :  "  But 
it  may  be  that  I  shall  be  sometimes  remembered  with  good- 
will in  the  abodes  of  those  whose  lot  it  is  to  labor,  and  to  earn 
their  daily  bread  by  the  sweat  of  their  brow,  when  they  shall 
recruit  their  exhausted  strength  with  abundant  and  untaxed 
food,  the  sweeter  because  it  is  no  longer  leavened  with  a 
sense  of  injustice." 

The  passage  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Emancipation  Bill  did 
not  bring  tranquillity  to  Ireland.  One  great  cause  of  the 
disturbances  remained.  While  six  millions  and  a  half  of  the 
population  were  Roman  Catholics,  the  members  of  the  church 
of  England  numbered  but  little  over  eight  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand.  Yet  the  church  of  England  was  by  law  established 
in  Ireland,  and  the  entire  population,  Roman  Catholic  and 
Protestant  alike,  were  compelled  to  pay  tithes  for  its  support. 
In  1834  the  revenues  of  the  Establishment  in  that  country 
were  more  than  eight  hundred  thousand  pounds — there  were 


QUEEN    VICTORIA.  397 

fourteen  hundred  parishes,  of  which  forty-one  did  not  contain 
a  single  Protestant,  twenty  had  only  five  each,  and  one  hun- 
dred and  sixty-five  could  number  only  twenty-five  each.  Yefc 
there  were  four  Protestant  archbishops  and  eighteen  bishops- 
The  Roman  CathoUc  Church  received  no  support  by  law. 
Its  priests  were  poor,  and  the  little  which  their  poor  parish' 
ioners  could  ofi"er  them — the  cow,  the  pig,  the  sack  of  corn, 
or  the  bit  of  money — was  carried  off  by  a  tithe  collector,  often 
backed  by  an  armed  police,  to  support  the  clergyman  of  the 
Establishment.  No  wonder,  then,  that  the  Irish  peasantry 
had  little  love  for  a  church  supported  by  such  oppressive  acts. 
Often  in  the  attempt  to  collect  the  tithes,  the  clergyman  or 
his  agent  was  assaulted  or  murdered,  and  dreadful  deeds  of 
revenge  were  perpetrated  by  the  outraged  tithe-payers. 

The  necessity  of  doing  something  to  remedy  the  miseries 
of  Ireland  was  debated  session  after  session  in  the  British 
parliament.  Between  the  years  1835  and  1840,  a  system  of 
national  education  was  introduced  into  Ireland  with  beneficial 
results.  Under  the  administration  of  Lord  Mulgrave  the 
country  enjoyed  more  of  quiet  and  prosperity  than  had  been 
known  there  since  the  union. 

During  the  years  1841-43,  Daniel  O'Connell  raised  the  cry 
for  the  repeal  of  the  union  throughout  Ireland.  The  Repeal 
Association  was  formed.  Among  its  members  were  collectors 
who  received,  under  the  name  of  rent,  large  sums  of  money 
in  aid  of  this  association.  Meetings  were  held  in  every 
part  of  the  country,  and  harangued  by  the  repeal  agitators. 
O'Connell,  at  a  meeting  held  at  Tara,  in  August,  1843, 
promised  that  within  a  year  an  "  Irish  parliament  should  be 
held  in  College  Green,  Dublin,  and  the  hurrahs  for  repeal  be 
heard  over  all  the  land."  So  errcat  was  the  enthusiasm  of 
the  people,  that  the  rent  collections  reached  the  almost  in- 
credible sum  of  three  thousand  pounds  a  week.  At  length 
government  interfered.  A  proclamation  against  a  monster 
meeting  summoned  by  O'Connell  at  Clontarf  was  published, 
and  measures  were  taken  to  prevent  the  assembling  of  the 
people.  A  few  days  later,  O'Connell  and  other  leaders  of  the 
34 


398  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

Repeal  Association  were  arrestee^  and  tried.  They  were  con- 
victed of  conspiracy,  sedition,  and  unlawful  assembling,  but 
an  appeal  having  been  made  against  the  sentence,  some  tech- 
nical difficulty  was  allowed  by  the  judges  to  whom  the  last 
reference  was  had,  and  the  prisoners,  in  consequence,  were 
set  at  liberty.  This  magnanimity  on  the  part  of  the  British 
government  had  a  great  eifect  in  lessening  the  moral  influence 
which  O'Connell  possessed  over  his  countrymen.  His  political 
sincerity  was  questioned,  his  popularity  deserted  him,  and  a 
few  years  later  he  died  at  Genoa. 

The  temperance  movement,  begun  by  Father  Matthew 
about  the  year  1841,  exerted  for  the  next  four  or  five  years  a 
most  beneficent  influence  upon  Ireland.  Drunkenness,  and 
with  it  crime,  rapidly  decreased.  Unfortunately  this  reform 
went  hand  in  hand  with  the  repeal  agitation.  When  the 
latter  failed,  the  cause  of  temperance  languished,  and  there 
followed  years  of  misery,  crime,  and  famine. 

Sir  Kobert  Peel  attributed  these  calamities  in  a  great 
measure  to  the  want  of  a  liberal  provision  for  religious  and 
secular  education  among  the  priests  and  people  of  that  un- 
happy country.  To  supply  this  want,  a  bill  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  three  colleges,  at  Belfast,  Cork,  and  Limerick, 

was  introduced  and  passed  through  parliament.     To 
1845*    ^"^^^®  ^  ^^®  priests  an  education  in  their  own  laud, 

another  bill  proposed  an  enlargement  of  the  grant  to 
Maynooth  College.  This  institution,  for  the  training  of 
Roman  Catholic  priests  in  their  own  faith,  had  been  founded 
in  the  year  1795,  but  the  grant  made  to  it,  being  only  nine 
thousand  pounds  per  annum,  was  inadequate  to  the  numbers 
requiring  education  there ;  nor  could  it  secure  a  very  high 
order  of  instruction.  The  bill  for  increasing  the  grant  to 
Maynooth  met  with  violent  opposition,  being  regarded  by 
many  as  injurious  to  the  principles  of  the  Protestant  Reform- 
ation, and  providing  for  the  maintenance  of  religious  error. 
It  was  carried,  however,  and  the  grant  to  the  college  increased 
to  twenty-six  thousand  three  hundred  and  eighty  pounds. 
During  the  years  1846-7,  one  of  the  most  terrible  famines 


QUEEN   VICTORIA.  399 

ever  recorded  in  history  spread  over  Ireland.  This  was  owing 
to  the  failure  of  the  potato  crop,  the  staple  food  of  the  Irish 
laborer.  The  disease  in  the  potato  plant  extended  with 
such  fearful  rapidity,  as  often  to  convert  in  a  single  night 
acres  of  bloom  into  a  mass  of  putrefaction.  The  scenes  of 
suffering  presented  during  this  calamitous  time  were  heart- 
rending. Often  when  the  door  of  the  wretched  cabin  was 
opened,  there  was  found  a  whole  family  lying  dead  in  a 
group.  The  wail  of  the  starving  arose  in  every  district.  The 
workhouse  doors  were  besieged  by  famishing  multitudes  beg- 
ging for  bread.  Government,  roused  by  the  magnitude  of 
the  calamity,  applied  itself  to  immediate  measures  of  relief. 
Above  half  a  million  of  peasantry  had  been  deprived  of  their 
usual  food — potatoes.  There  was  grain,  but  they  had  no 
money  to  buy  it.  To  afford  employment  and  wages  to  the 
laborer,  government  appropriated  several  millions  sterling  to 
the  erection  of  public  works  in  Ireland,  and  in  March,  1847, 
seven  hundred  and  thirty  four  thousand  laborers  found  em- 
ployment, their  aggregate  wages  amounting  to  two  hundred 
thousand  pounds.  Large  sums  were  subscribed  for  sending 
food  to  Ireland.  All  duties  were  taken  off  of  grain,  the 
navigation  laws  were  suspended,  so  that  relief  might  be  trans- 
mitted immediately,  and  food  imported  from  foreign  countries. 
Yet  with  such  fearful  strides  had  disease  and  death  followed 
in  the  train  of  famine,  that  hundreds  died  before  relief  could 
be  brought  to  them,  or  perished  from  exhaustion  before  they 
could  reach  the  public  works.  The  scenes  of  horror  exceeded 
anything  which  the  pen  of  Dante  or  Defoe,  or  the  canvas  of 
Poussin,  had  depicted.  In  the  words  of  Lord  John  Russell : 
^'  A  famine  of  the  thirteenth  had  fallen  on  the  population  of 
the  nineteenth  century." 

The  conduct  of  the  British  government  reflects  the  highest 
honor  on  its  character  for  generous  liberality.     During  these 

1846     y^^^®  of  wide-spread  distress  no  less  than  eight  mil- 
ana      lions  of  pounds  were  bestowed  upon  Ireland,  either 

■^^*^*   in  the  form  of  public  appropriations  or  private  sub- 
scriptions.   Nor  were  the  people  and  government  of  the  United 


400  HISTORY    OF   ENGLAND. 

States  less  liberal  in  their  efforts  to  mitigate  the  horrors  of  the 
Irish  famine.  Private  subscriptions  were  opened,  large  sup- 
plies of  provisions  collected,  and  shipped  in  a  public  armed 
vessel  to  the  coast  of  Ireland.  During  the  year  of  the  famine, 
and  those  immediately  succeeding,  the  immigration  of  the 
Irish  to  foreign  shores  was  immense.  The  population,  which 
in  1841  was  over  eight  millions,  is  now  (1860)  but  little  over 
six.  The  Irish  have  left  the  land  of  their  birth,  to  find 
subsistence  in  the  country  of  strangers,  but  their  affections 
still  centre  in  the  home  they  have  left.  In  proof  of  this, 
the  remittances  made  to  Ireland  from  her  children  abroad, 
amounted  in  the  year  1853  to  nearly  seven  millions  of  dollars. 
Theirs  is  the  feeling  which  breathes  so  touchingly  in  the 
familiar  song  of  "  The  Irish  Emigrant's  Lament :" 

"  They  say  there's  bread  and  work  for  all, 
And  the  sun  shines  always  there, 
But  I'll  ne'er  forget  old  Ireland, 
Were  it  fifty  times  as  fair." 

In  July  of  1848  an  insurrection  broke  out  in  Ireland, 
headed  by  Smith  O'Brien,  Thomas  Francis  Meagher,  and 
others.  It  had  for  its  object  the  old  aim,  repeal  of  the  union 
and  restoration  of  the  ancient  constitution  and  native  rule. 
This  rebellion  w9s  put  down  with  little  difficulty  on  the  part 
of  the  government.  O'Brien  and  other  leaders  were  arrested, 
tried,  and  sentenced  to  death.  The  sentence  was  commuted 
to  that  of  transportation  for  life.  At  the  conclusion  of  the 
Russian  war  an  amnesty  was  proclaimed,  under  which  these 
political  exiles,  excepting  only  those  who  had  broken  their 
parole,  returned  to  their  country  after  an  absence  of  eight 
years. 

Questions. — Describe  the  character  of  the  young  queen. — What 
■was  the  condition  of  the  laboring  classes  of  England  during  the 
early  years  of  her  reign? — What  did  the  Chartists  demand? — What 
were  the  corn-laws? — When  were  they  repealed? — Who  was  prime 
minister  at  that  time  ? — Repeat  his  remarks. 

What  was  the  object  of  the  Repeal  Association? — Give  the  account 


QUEEN    VICTORIA.  401 

of  its  suppression. — Give  the  history  of  the  temperance  movement 
in  Ireland. — State  the  results  of  Sir  Robert  Peel's  efforts  for  the 
promotion  of  education. — Relate  the  history  of  Maynooth  College. — 
What  caused  the  great  famine  in  Ireland? — Describe  this  calamity. — 
What  measures  were  taken  by  government  for  the  relief  of  the  suf- 
ferers ? — What  effect  had  the  famine  upon  immigration  ? — What  is 
said  of  the  charity  of  the  Irish  emigrants  ? — Relate  the  history 
of  Smith  O'Brien's  insurrection. 


CHAPTER  LXV. 

QUEEN   VICTORIA. 

THE  CHARTIST  REBELLION — FOREIGN    RELATIONS — TROUBLES  IN  TURKEY 

MILITARY   OPERATIONS. 

In  the  spring  of  1848  occurred  a  revolution  in  France,  by 
which  the  king,  Louis  Philippe,  was  driven  from  the  throne. 
The  success  of  this  revohition  in  France,  coupled  with  the 
great  distress  then  pi*evailing  throughout  the  manufacturing 
districts  of  England,  encouraged  the  Chartists  to  renew  their 
efforts  to  force  their  Charter  upon  the  government.  To  afford 
the  occasion  for  assembling,  they  got  up  a  monster  petition  to 
be  presented  on  the  10th  of  April  by  as  many  as  could  effect 
an  entrance  into  the  House  of  Commons.  This  point  gained, 
they  expected  to  intimidate  government  by  their  numbers, 
and  to  proclaim  a  republic. 

Under  the  orders  and  superintendence  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,  every  measure  was  taken  to  defeat  this  formidable 
attempt.  A  proclamation  forbade  more  than  ten  persons  to 
present  a  petition  at  any  one  time,  and  likewise  asserted  that 
any  attempt  to  organize  a  procession  in  returning  from  the 
House  of  Commons  would  be  stopped  by  force  of  arms.  To 
provide  for  the  carrying  out  of  these  designs,  large  bodies  of 
police  were  stationed  at  the  several  bridges  by  which  the 
Chartists  might  pass  from  Kennington  Common,  where  they 
were  assembled,  into  Westminster.  Cannon  also  and  troops 
84*  2C 


402  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

were  concealed  in  the  vicinity.  Regiments  were  kept  in 
reserve  at  various  other  unseen  points,  and  artillery  was  in 
readiness  at  the  Tower,  to  be  conveyed  on  board  armed 
steamers  to  any  part  of  the  metropolis  which  might  require 
such  defence.  All  the  public  ofl&ces  were  well  guarded,  and 
the  Bank  of  England  was  occupied  by  bodies  of  infantry,  and 
strongly  barricaded.  One  hundred  and  seventy  thousand 
special  constables,  previously  trained  for  duty,  were  stationed 
throughout  London  j  and  among  these  served  on  that  import- 
ant occasion,  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  the  present  emperor 
of  the  French. 

These  wise  precautions  effectually  frustrated  the  hopes  and 
designs  of  the  Chartists.  Being  informed  by  a  few  resolute 
policemen  that  they  might  send  their  petition  in  a  proper 
manner  to  the  House,  but  that  any  attempt  to  pass  the  bridges 
in  procession  would  be  resisted,  the  large  body  of  some  fifty 
thousand  men  broke  their  ranks  and  gave  up  their  attempt. 
A  few  bodies  of  Chartists  tried  to  force  their  way  into  West- 
minster, but  were  repelled  by  the  police,  and  by  seven  o'clock 
in  the  evening  all  had  dispersed,  and  order  and  quiet  reigned 
in  the  vast  metropolis.  The  most  violent  Chartist  leaders, 
who  still  kept  up  the  spirit  of  insurrection  in  London,  were 
seized  during  the  course  of  the  summer,  tried,  convicted,  and 
transported  for  life. 

The  year  1854  witnessed  the  strange  spectacle  of  the 
armies  of  England  and  France  contending,  not  against  each 
other,  as  for  centuries  past,  from  the  days  of  Cre§y  and  of 
Agincourt,  but  unitedly  in  behalf  of  the  threatened  empire 
of  Mohammed.  If  ever  these  nations  had  combined  before, 
it  had  been  in  the  days  of  the  Crusades,  to  war  against  this 
very  power  whose  existence  they  now  joined  to  defend.  This 
singular  anomaly  of  European  armies  transported  to  the  East, 
to  fight  for  and  with  the  Turk,  arose  from  the  following 
circumstances. 

The  empire  of  the  czars  of  Russia  during  several  centuries 
had  gone  on  increasing  in  power  and  dominion,  until  it 
swayed  one-half  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  large  territories 


QUEEN    VICTORIA.  403 

in  Asia,  and  threatened  to  become  the  predominant  power  in 
Christendom.  In  her  career  of  conquest,  Eussia  had  come 
into  collision  with  Turkey,  and  by  military  successes  and  sub- 
sequent treaties  had  gained  important  advantages.  In  fact, 
the  provisions  of  the  peace  of  Adrianople,  concluded  between 
Russia  and  the  Porte  in  1829,  threatened  the  future  inde- 
pendence, if  not  the  very  existence,  of  the  Ottoman  Empire. 

The  aggrandizing  spirit  of  Russia  awakened  the  fears  of 
England  and  France,  as  well  as  those  of  other  powers  on 
the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  dominions  of  the 
sultan  on  the  Bosphorus  and  the  Dardanelles  were  the  chief 
barrier  which  prevented  the  czar's  supremacy  over  the  waters 
of  Europe's  great  inland  sea;  these  once  passed,  Russia  would 
rival  England  as  a  naval  power,  and  imperil  moreover  the 
empire  of  Great  Britain  in  the  East.  These  considerations 
induced  the  western  powers  of  Europe  to  view  with  jealous 
eye  the  ambition  of  Russia.  The  circumstances  which  brought 
on  the  war,  however,  arose  from  a  quarrel  between  the  Grreek 
and  Roman  Catholic  or  Latin  Churches,  on  the  subject  of  the 
holy  places  at  Jerusalem. 

Syria  was  a  province  of  Turkey,  but  the  sultan  permitted 
both  Greek  and  Latin  Christians  to  maintain  places  for 
worship  in  the  Holy  City.  There  for  centuries  had  been 
established  churches,  shrines,  and  grottoes  commemorative 
of  various  scenes  in  our  Saviour's  life,  sufferings,  and  death. 
Among  these  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  built  over 
the  supposed  site  of  the  tomb  of  our  Lord,  was  held  especially 
sacred.  For  the  exclusive  possession  of  this  holy  place,  the 
monks  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches  kept  up  incessant 
disputiugs.  Some  idea  of  the  extent  of  these  disgraceful 
quarrels  may  be  gathered  from  the  following  conversation, 
which  took  place  between  an  English  missionary  and  a  Turk- 
ish pasha  of  Jerusalem,  whom  the  former  sought  to  convert  to 
Christianity:  "What  are  the  advantages  of  your  religion  over 
mine  ?"  asked  the  pasha.  "  Peace  on  earth  and  glory  after 
death,"  replied  the  missionary.  ''  As  to  the  latter,"  said  the 
Turk,  "  our  prophet  promises  that  too ;  and  for  the  peace  on 


404  HISTORY   OF  ENGLAND. 

earth,  the  Church  of  the  Sepulchre  has  a  band  of  Greek 
Christians  on  the  one  side,  and  a  band  of  lloman  Christians 
on  the  other,  and  in  the  centre  is  a  Turkish  guard,  to  keep 
them  from  cutting  each  others'  throats." 

The  Russian  czar,  Nicholas,  as  head  of  the  Greek  Church, 
and  Louis  Napoleon,  as  the  representative  and  protector  of 
the  Latin  Christians,  demanded  of  the  sultan  for  their  re- 
spective churches  exclusive  privileges  quite  incompatible  with 
each  other.  The  sultan,  Abdul-Medjid,  was  placed  in  an 
embarrassing  position ; — between  two  formidable  and  rival 
claimants,  both  of  whom  he  was  desirous  to  please.  After 
much  delay  and  perplexity  he  issued  a  firman  (or  decree) 
designed  to  be  sufficiently  liberal  towards  the  Greek  Church, 
and  yet  not  so  partial  as  to  give  umbrage  to  the  Latin 
Christians.  The  Czar  Nicholas,  on  the  very  day  the  firman 
was  issued,  demanded  through  his  ambassador  the  right  of 
absolute  protection  over  all  Greek  Christians.  This  demand, 
it  was  asserted,  implied  the  control  over  twelve  millions  of 
the  sultan's  subjects.  It  was  refused  by  the  Ottoman  Porte. 
The  western  powers  then  interfered,  and  at  the  end  of  eight 
months  of  diplomatic  negotiations,  England  and  France  an- 
nounced their  intention  to  take  up  arms  in  aid  of  the  sultan, 
against  the  "unprovoked  aggression"  of  the  czar.  Then 
these  western  powers  united  as  the  ally  of  Turkey,  and  the 
troops  of  these  nations  saw  service  in  strangely  foreign  parts. 

On  the  4th  of  the  preceding  October,  the  New  Year's  day 
of  the  Mohammedans,  the  sultan's  declaration  of  war  against 
Russia  had  been  read  in  all  the  mosques,  and  large  Turkish 
armies  were  collected  in  the  Dauubian  provinces  and  on  the 
frontiers  of  Asia.  In  the  wild  mountain  region  of  Caucasus 
the  native  tribes,  to  the  number  of  twenty  thousand,  under 
their  brave  chief  and  prophet,  Schamyl,  united  with  a  Turkish 
army  to  attack  the  Russians.  The  heroism  of  this  mountain 
chief,  and  the  enthusiasm  which  he  awakened  in  his  followers, 
occasioned  severe  reverses  to  the  Russian  arms  during  the 
year  1854.  The  latter,  however,  finally  prevailed,  and  the 
czar  triumphed  in  that  quarter  by  the  capture  of  the  import- 


QUEEN    VICTORIA.  405 

ant  town  of  Kars,  towards  the  close  of  1855.  The  defence 
of  this  place  had  been  conducted  by  the  English  General 
Williams. 

The  operations  which  reflected  greatest  honor  upon  the 
armies  of  the  sultan  were  performed  in  the  Dobrudscha,  an 
unhealthy  district  lying  between  the  river  Danube  and  the 
Black  Sea.  The  Russians  with  a  powerful  army  occupied  the 
Danubian  principalities  of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia,  and  the 
Turks,  under  Omar  Pasha,  in  the  autumn  of  1853,  addressed 
themselves  to  the  difficult  task  of  opposing  their  further 
advance  upon  the  dominions  of  Turkey.  The  victory  of 
Oltenitza,  won  in  November,  and  other  successes  obtained 
during  the  winter,  animated  the  spirits  and  courage  of  the 
Turks.  In  the  spring  of  1851  a  Russian  army  laid  siege  to 
Silistria,  an  important  town  situated  on  the  Danube.  From 
the  11th  of  May  to  the  22d  of  June,  the  place  was  besieged. 
The  defence  was  maintained  with  great  spirit,  skill,  and 
bravery  on  the  part  of  the  Turks  under  the  command  of 
Mussa  Pasha.  At  length  the  Russians — aware  that  the  allied 
armies  had  reached  Varna;  that  a  detachment  of  French 
and  Jilnglish  had  been  sent  forward  for  the  relief  of  Silistria; 
and  that  the  combined  fleet  had  passed  the  Bosphorus; — raised 
the  siege,  and  turned  to  the  defence  of  their  dominions,  now 
formidably  threatened,  on  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea.  At 
tlic  expiration  of  forty-two  days,  the  Russian  army,  which  at 
one  time  had  numbered  sixty  thousand,  and  had  thrown,  from 
sixty  pieces  of  ordnance,  no  less  than  fifty  thousand  shot  and 
shell  into  the  town,  were  forced  to  abandon  the  first  siege  of 
this  campaign,  the  defence  having  been  maintained  by  the 
skill  and  valor  of  Turks  alone. 

Meanwhile  the  armies  of  the  English  and  French  allies 
had  arrived  in  Turkey.  Owing  to  lamentable  mismanage- 
ment on  the  part  of  the  commissariat,  when  the  troops 
reached  that  country  no  adequate  provision  had  been  made 
for  their  support.  This  neglect  occasioned  a  vast  amount 
of  suffering,  especially  at  Varna,  a  port  on  the  Black  Sea, 
where    the   allied   forces   were   quartered    from   June    until 


406  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

August,  1854.  The  soldiers  were  in  want  of  tents,  proper 
food,  bedding,  and  medical  stores.  During  the  stay  at  Varna, 
the  cholera  and  typhus  fever  broke  out,  and  these  frightful 
diseases,  spreading  through  the  camps  and  in  the  fleets,  added 
to  the  intense  sufierings  which  the  allied  armies  endured 
throughout  the  entire  war. 

Questions. — Mention  the  circumstances  which  led  to  the  Chartist 
insurrection. — What  were  the  designs  of  the  Chartists? — What  pre- 
parations were  made  to  resist  them? — State  the  result. — Describe 
the  progress  of  Russian  power  and  dominion. — What  powers  were 
threatened  by  the  aggrandizement  of  Russia? — State  the  causes 
which  awakened  the  fears  of  the  English  government. — State  the 
circumstances  which  were  the  immediate  occasion  of  the  war. 

Name  the  two  powers  which  united  with  Turkey. — When  did  the  sul- 
tan declare  war? — What  is  said  of  the  operations  in  the  Caucasus? — 
Relate  the  success  of  the  Turks  in  the  Danubian  provinces. — Describe 
the  siege  and  defence  of  Silistria. — What  led  to  the  abandonment  of 
the  siege? — Describe  the  condition  of  the  allied  troops  in  Turkey. — 
To  what  was  this  owing  ? — Mention  other  causes  of  suffering. 


CHAPTER  LXVI. 

QUEEN    VICTORIA. 

ENGLISH   TROOPS    IN   THE    CRIMKA  —  ALMA — THE    SIEGE    OF    SEBASTOPOL — 
FLORENCE    NIGHTINGALE. 

On  the  Crimea,  a  peninsula  extending  into  the  Black  Sea, 
stood  the  Russian  naval  depot  of  Sebastopol.  Powerful  forts, 
mounting  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  and  ninety  guns  each, 
commanded  the  fine  harbor  in  which  floated  a  fleet,  the  second 
if  not  the  first  in  importance  of  the  Russian  navy.  Besides 
the  commanding  batteries  of  Forts  Constantine  and  iVlexander, 
which  crowned  the  northern  and  southern  points  of  the  en- 
trance to  the  great  harbor,  that  entrance  was  further  protected 
by  sunken  ships,  which  eff'ectually  barred  it  against  the  allied 


QUEEN    VICTORIA,  407 

fleet.  To  capture  this  stronghold  of  the  czar,  and  destroy  the 
Kussian  fleet,  thus  rendering  it  impossible  for  Russia  to  obtain 
naval  supremacy  in  the  waters  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  was 
the  grand  object  of  the  allied  governments. 

An  army  consisting  of  twenty-seven  thousand  English, 
twenty-five  thousand  French,  and  eight  thousand  Turkish 
troops,  landed  in  the  Crimea  on  the  14th  September,  1854, 
and  on  the  19th  commenced  its  march  towards  Sebastopol, 
which  lay  about  thirty  miles  to  the  south  of  the  place  of 
debarkation.  The  route  was  crossed  by  three  small  rivers, 
the  most  northerly  of  which  was  the  Alma ;  on  the  heights 
which  rise  from  this  stream,  Prince  Mentschikofi",  with  from 
forty-five  to  fifty  thousand  Russian  troops,  awaited  the  ap- 
proach of  the  allied  forces.  The  latter  were  commanded  by 
the  English  Lord  Raglan  and  the  French  Marshal  de  St. 
Arnaud.  During  a  halt  on  the  march,  St.  Arnaud,  as  he 
rode  past  the  fifty-fifth  regiment  of  the  allies,  exclaimed : 
''  English  !  I  hope  you  will  fight  well  to-day!"  "  Hope  !" 
shouted  a  voice  from  the  ranks,  "  sure,  you  know  we  will." 

About  half  past  one  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  the  20th, 
the  French  and  English  divisions  began  the  assault  on  the 
strong  position  of  the  enemy,  partially  entrenched  on  the 
heights  of  Alma.  These  formidable  heights  were  defended 
by  large  masses  of  Russian  infantry,  and  a  powerful  and 
numerous  artillery.  They  were  won  by  the  valor  of  the 
French  and  English  'soldiers,  after  a  sharp  contest  which 
lasted  about  three  hours.  The  French  Zouaves  under  Grene- 
ral  Bosquet,  the  English  artillery  under  Sir.  George  Brown, 
and  the  Highland  brigade  under  Sir  Colin  Campbell,  were 
conspicuous  for  their  brilliant  conduct  during  this  action. 
The  divisions  displayed  a  rivalry  for  the  first  occupancy  of 
the  enemy's  redoubts.  "  We'll  hae  none  but  Highland 
bonnets  here !"  exclaimed  the  brave  veteran  Sir  Colin,  as,  far 
in  advance  of  his  men,  he  rushed  on  to  take  possession  of  the 
battery  of  the  defeated  enemy.  After  the  battle  of  the 
Alma  the  allies  pursued  their  march  towards  Sebastopol. 

Finding  no  harbor  on  the  north  side  of  the  town  which 


408  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

might  serve  as  a  refuge  for  their  transports,  and  a  dep6t  for 
their  supplies,  the  allies  made  a  flank  march  to  the  left,  and, 
turning  Sebastopol,  seized  the  village  and  harbor  of  Balaklava, 
about  six  miles  to  the  south  of  it.  From  the  28th  of  Septem- 
ber until  the  10th  of  October,  the  allies  were  engaged  chiefly 
in  landing  their  siege  trains  and  stores,  and  making  prepara- 
tions for  the  attack.  The  greater  part  of  the  French  armv 
landed  at  Kamiesch  Bay,  and  their  divisions  during  the  first 
weeks  of  the  siege  were  posted  chiefly  to  the  west  and  south- 
west of  Sebastopol,  whilst  the  English  were  in  strongest  posi- 
tion on  the  south  and  south-east  of  the  town. 

The  entrance  to  Sebastopol  on  the  south  was  open  and 
quite  unprotected.  Above  the  town  on  that  side  arose  heights 
commanding  the  harbor,  dockyards,  and  arsenal  buildings, 
which,  if  secured  by  an  enemy,  would  render  the  place  un- 
tenable. The  Russians  seized  these  heights  and  erected 
upon  them  their  lines  of  defence,  and  it  now  became  the 
object  of  the  allies  to  drive  them  from  these  hills  and  secure 
possession  for  themselves.  Under  cover  of  night  on  the  10th 
of  October,  the  allies  dug  their  first  trench  two  thousand 
yards  from  the  Russian  defences. 

A  trench  is  a  sort  of  ditch  or  sunken  road,  three  feet  in 
depth,  and  of  sufficient  dimensions  to  allow  the  passage  of  men 
and  cannon.  The  earth  thrown  up  from  the  excavation  forms 
a  breastwork,  which,  from  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  is  about  six 
feet  high,  thus  affording  an  effectual" covering  to  the  troops 
within  the  trench,  against  the  shot  of  the  enemy's  guns.  At 
certain  intervals  are  constructed  batteries  or  platforms  on 
which  guns  are  mounted.  These  are  placed  in  such  position 
as  to  fire  with  effect  upon  the  defences  of  the  besieged.  A 
second  trench  is  dug  parallel  to  the  first  (and  for  that  reason 
technically  named  a  parallel),  and  still  nearer  to  the  place  in 
siege.  This  also  is  provided  with  batteries,  and  communicates 
with  the  first  trench  by  diagonal  cuts  called  zigzags  or  ap- 
proaches. In  this  manner,  during  the  siege  of  Sebastopol, 
trench  after  trench  was  dug,  until  the  approaches  of  the  allies 
were  made  up  to  the  very  edge  of  the  Russian  defences. 


QUEEN    VICTORIA.  409 

Whilst  the  works  of  the  besiegers  were  in  progress,  the 
Russians  on  their  part  were  actively  engaged  in  mounting 
artillery  behind  similar  works  constructed  on  the  heights 
which  they  had  occupied  above  the  town.  Among  these 
defences,  which  at  intervals  surrounded  and  commanded  Se- 
bastopol  in  a  semicircular  line,  were  those  which  became  so 
famous  under  the  names  of  the  Malakoff  Tower,  the  Great 
and  the  Little  Redan,  &c.  Not  only  did  the  Russians  erect 
and  man  the  above-named  positions,  but  they  even  advanced 
six  hundred  yards  beyoad  them,  to  a  hill  thirty  feet  higher 
than  the  MalakoflF.  On  this  height,  called  the  Mamelon, 
with  great  skill  and  boldness  they  erected  batteries,  thus 
advancing  upon  the  works  of  the  allies  as  the  latter  drew 
their  approaches  nearer  the  Russian  line.  It  would  perhaps 
be  impossible  to  exaggerate  the  difficulties  encountered  by 
both  armies  in  constructing  these  siege  works  and  defences ; 
in  some  places  the  almost  incredible  labor  of  digging  trenches 
through  limestone  rock  was  performed,  whilst  the  earth  to 
form  the  parapets  was  actually  conveyed  in  bags  and  baskets 
from  a  distance  of  seven  hundred  yards.  The  approaches 
of  the  allies,  moreover,  were  greatly  retarded  by  frequent 
sorties  of  the  Russians,  filling  up  the  trenches  and  spiking 
the  guns.  The  latter  operation  consists  in  driving  a  round 
steel  file  firmly  into  the  vent  of  the  piece,  so  that  it  is 
impossible  to  discharge  it. 

The  contest  to  destroy  the  artillery  mounted  in  the  re- 
spective works  engaged  both  parties  during  the  entire  siege. 
Until  the  allies  had  thus  succeeded,  and  gained  the  mastery 
over  the  Russian  guns,  there  was  no  probability  of  success  in 
an  assault. 
j^gg^  At  half  past  six  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  17th 
October,  the  French  and  English  batteries  began  the 
first  of  the  seven  bombardments  which  during  the  siege  they 
opened  upon  the  defences  of  Sebastopol.  During  this  first 
bombardment,  the  Malakofi"  Tower,  a  small  building  only 
capable  of  holding  about  a  hundred  men,  was  nearly  destroyed 
by  the  guns  of  the  allies.     About  its  ruins  was  erected  the 


410  HISTORY    OF    KNGLAND. 

Korniloff  Bastion,  the  assault  and  carrying  of  which,  and  not 
of  the  Mahikoff  Tower,  as  usually  stated,  was  the  great  and 
final  achievement  of  the  siege. 

On  the  25th  of  October,  a  sortie  of  thirty-five  thousand 
Russians  seized  some  redoubts  which  were  erected  on  hills 
that  crossed  the  valley  of  Balaklava.  The  Turks  charged 
with  the  defence  of  these  forts  fled,  and  the  enemy,  after 
taking  possession  of  them,  continued  their  advance  towards 
the  town  of  Balaklava.  They  were  met  and  driven  back  by 
the  English  cavalry.  Before  the  day  was  over  occurred  that 
brilliant  but  fatal  action  so  well  known  as  "  The  Charge  of 
the  Light  Brigade." 

Acting  under  a  misapprehended  order  from  Lord  Raglan, 
to  advance  upon  the  gun&  of  the  enemy.  Lord  Cardigan  with 
his  light  cavalry  charged  over  a  plain  a  mile  and  a  half  in 
length,  directly  in  the  face  of  the  foe.  The  Russians  were 
in  strong  position,  and  scarcely  had  this  devoted  band  begun 
their  advance  before  a  deadly  fire  from  thirty  pieces  of  artil- 
lery was  opened  upon  them.  The  first  line  was  broken,  but 
the  second  closed  up,  and  "with  ranks  thinned  by  those 
thirty  Russian  guns, — with  a  halo  of  flashing  steel  above 
their  heads, — 

"Charging  an  army,  while 

All  the  world  wonder'd : 
Plunged  in  the  battery-smoke 
Eight  through  the  line  they  broke ; 
Cossack  and  Russian 
Reel'd  from  the  sabre-stroke, 

Shatter'd  and  sunder'd. 
Then  they  rode  back — but  not, 

Not  the  six  hundred." 

Later  in  the  year  occurred  another  Russian  sortie.  On  the 
heights  of  Inkermann,  on  the  extreme  right  of  the  allied 
position,  were  a  few  outposts  of  the  English  but  slightly 
guarded.  These  were  surprised  by  a  large  body  of  Russians 
on  the  morning  of  the  5th  of  November,  and  a  fearful  and 


QUEtTN    VICTORIA.  411 

sanguinary  action  ensued.  "  The  battle  of  Inkermann,"  says 
Russell,  "admits  ol!  no  description.  It  was  a  series  of 
dreadful  deeds  of  daring,  of  sanguinary  hand-to-hand  fights. 
of  despairing  rallies,  of  desperate  assaults-r-in  glens  and 
valleys,  in  brushwood  glades  and  remote  dells,  and  from 
which  the  conquerors,  llussian  or  British,  issued  only  to 
engage  fresh  foes,"  until  at  the  end  of  six  hours  the  bat- 
talions of  the  czar  gave  way  before  the  desperate  valor  of  the 
French  infantry,  who  about  ten  o'clock  came  to  the  aid  of 
their  hard-fought  and  still  hard-fighting  allies. 

In  the  following  year,  on  the  7th  of  June,  1855,  the 
French  troops  stormed  and  carried  the  Eussian  works  on 
the  Mamelon.  But  this  great  success  was  not  achieved 
without  a  fearful  loss  of  life.  Some  accounts  state  the  loss 
of  the  French  in  this  assault  alone,  at  three  thousand  seven 
hundred  in  killed  and  wounded. 

About  a  month  previous  to  the  capture  of  the  Mamelon  a 
body  of  Sardinian  troops  arrived  in  the  Crimea,  and  took 
part  in  the  siege.  On  the  16th  of  August  a  Russian  sortie 
was  made  upon  the  outposts  of  these  new  allies,  as  also  upon 
the  French  lines  upon  the  banks  of  the  river  Tcheruaya. 
It  resulted  in  a  brief  but  important  action,  in  which  the 
Russians  were  repulsed  with  a  loss  of  some  nine  thousand 
men,  and  the  allies  gained  a  nearer  approach  to  the  devoted 
town.  Such  are  a  few  of  the  incidents  of  this  memorable 
siege,  carried  on  during  twelve  long  and  weary  months. 

And  now  the  approaches  of  the  allies  had  gained  the  edge 
of  the  enemy's  defences.  From  the  French  trench  in  front 
of  the  MalakofF  one  might  lay  his  hand  on  the  abattis  of  the 
Korniloff  Bastion.  The  final,  the  successful  assault  was  at 
hand.  As  soon  as  day  dawned  on  the  5th  of  September, 
1855,  the  final  bombardment  was  opened,  with  eight  hundred 
pieces,  upon  the  defences  of  Sebastopol.  For  three  days  it 
was  maintained  with  concerted  irregularity.  These  changes 
in  the  mode  of  fire,  from  slow  to  quick,  and  from  an  entire 
suspension  to  ordinary,  accelerated,  and  rapid  rate,  were  de- 
signed to  leave  the  enemy  no  means  of  forming  a  judgment 


412  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

of  the  moment  of  the  expected  assault.  In  the  bewilderment 
thus  occasioned,  lay  the  only  hope  of  success  for  the  com- 
mander-in-chief Nor  was  he  disappointed.  Precisely  at 
noon  on  the  8th  of  September,  with  dauntless  bravery  and 
enthusiasm,  amid  cries  of  "  Vive  L'Empereur,"  the  French 
troops  under  Pelissier  rushed  to  the  assault  of  the  Korniloff 
Bastion  (the  so-called  Malakoff  Tower).  For  a  few  anxious 
moments  they  disappeared  in  descending  into  the  trenches, 
and  in  whirlwinds  of  dust,  but  when  they  emerged  it  was  to 
plant  the  colors  of  France  upon  the  ramparts  of  the  enemy. 

Reverse  and  defeat  attended  the  operations  of  both  the 
French  and  English  at  the  Great  and  Little  Redan,  and  at 
every  other  point  of  attack.  The  secret  of  the  success  at  the 
Malakoff  lay  in  the  power  that  accompanies  the  chief  who 
commands,  and  calls  to  his  aid  all  the  resources  far  and  near, 
while  his  subordinates  have  but  the  special  troops  assigned 
them  to  depend  upon.  If  any  comparison  be  drawn  in  rela- 
tion to  the  failures  at  the  several  unsuccessful  points,  it  would 
seem  that  the  English  under  General  Windham  possessed  and 
contrived  to  hold  the  Great  Redan,  for  a  longer  period  and 
with  a  more  determined  resistance  than  was  effected  in  any 
of  the  positions  attacked  by  the  French  troops.  Success 
crowned  the  efforts  of  the  commander-in-chief,  although,  no 
one  of  his  heroic  generals  could  accomplish  the  task  assigned 
them.  And  success  at  the  Korniloff  was  victory.  Sebastopol 
was  no  longer  tenable. 

During  the  night  the  Russians  quietly  withdrew  across  the 
harbor  A  few  hours  later,  and  upon  the  darkness  of  the 
night  burst  forth  the  flames  of  the  burning  city,  and  the  fear- 
ful sounds  of  explosion  arose  from  magazines  and  batteries. 
When  the  allies  entered  Sebastopol  it  was  a  city  of  ruins.  Of 
the  Russian  enemy,  says  Russell :  ''  He  left  us  few  trophies 
and  many  bitter  memories.^'  The  proclamation  of  peace 
reached  the  allied  armies  in  Sebastopol  on  the  2d  of  April, 
and  a  few  weeks  later  the  troops  returned  to  their  respective 
countries.  They  left  in  the  soil  of  the  Crimea  the  graves  of 
many,  many  thousands  of  their  comrades. 


QUEEN    VICTORIA.  413 

We  would  not  close  this  brief  account  of  the  Crimean 
expedition,  without  an  allusion  to  Florence  Nightingale — that 
heroic  woman  who  devoted  herself  with  so  much  skill  and 
tenderness  to  the  relief  of  the  sick  and  the  wounded.  Nor 
was  the  alleviation  of  individual  suffering  the  only  or  indeed 
the  greatest  good  effected  by  the  labors  of  this  self-denying 
woman.  She  was  the  means  of  awakening  governments  and 
nations  to  a  sense  of  the  fearful  responsibility  of  sending 
armies  into  foreign  climates,  to  undertake  long  and  dangerous 
military  operations,  without  adequate  supplies  of  medical 
stores,  and  the  means  of  removing  the  wounded  from  the 
field  of  battle. 

All  these  privations  in  their  worst  form  the  Crimean  army 
was  called  to  er^dure.  There  was  fearful  suffering  at  Scutari, 
at  Varna,  and  in  the  camp  before  Sebastopol.  "All  the 
pictures  ever  drawn  of  plague  and  pestilence,''  says  the  cor- 
respondent of  the  London  Times,  "  from  the  work  of  the 
inspired  writer  who  chronicled  the  woes  of  infidel  Egypt, 
down  to  the  narratives  of  Boccaccio,  Defoe,  or  Moltke,  fall 
short  of  individual  '  bits'  of  disease  and  death,  which  any  one 
might  see  in  half  a  dozen  places  during  half  an  hour's  walk 
in  Balaklava!"  "At  the  close  of  1854-  there  were  three 
thousand  five  hundred  sick  in  the  British  camp  before  Sebas- 
topol, caused  mostly  by  hard  work  in  bad  weather,  in  trenches 
like  canals,  and  in  which  the  men  were  saturated  to  the 
skin." 

Florence  Nightingale  was  the  daughter  of  an  English 
gentleman  of  good  family  and  estate  Some  accounts  assert 
that  she  is  of  the  same  age  as  the  English  queen.  Others, 
that  she  was-  born  in  Florence  four  years  later  than  Victoria, 
and  received  her  name  in  memory  of  that  fair  Italian  city. 
From  childhood  she  exhibited  a  sympathy  with  the  weak,  the 
suffering,  the  destitute,  and  the  desolate  Her  ministry  of 
love  began  early  in  the  schools  and  among  the  poor  of  the 
parishes  where  she  resided.  In  later  years  she  frequented 
the  hospitals  of  London  and  Edinburgh,  and  finally,  in  1851, 
Bhe  repaired  to  the  celebrated  German  Lutheran  Hospital, 
86* 


414  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

established  at  Kaiserwerth,  near  Diisseldorf,  on  the  Rhine. 
Here  she  went  through  a  thorough  course  of  instruction  and 
practice,  passing  several  months  in  daily  and  nightly  attend- 
ance upon  the  sick  and  the  afflicted. 

From  the  Hospital  at  Kaiserwerth  no  person  receives  a 
certificate  to  practise  as  a  nurse,  without  having  first  been 
subjected  to  a  severe  examination.  Through  this  ordeal  Miss 
Nightingale  passed  triumphantly.  Pasteur  Fliedner,  the  head 
of  the  establishment,  declared  that  since  his  acquaintance  with 
the  institution  no  one  had  ever  gone  through  so  distinguished 
an  examination,  or  shown  herself  so  thoroughly  mistress  of  all 
she  had  to  learn,  as  Florence  Nightingale.  Thus  was  she 
fitted  by  accumulated  experience  for  the  noble  mission  to 
which  God's  providence  called  her  in  the  Crimean  war. 

At  the  request  of  the  Right  Hon.  Sidney  Herbert,  Miss 
Nightingale  accepted  the  control  of  the  entire  establishment 
for  the  nursing  of  British  soldiers  and  sailors,  the  sick,  the 
wounded,  and  the  suffering  in  that  trying  campaign.  By  a 
singular  coincidence,  the  same  day  upon  which  this  proposal 
was  made  to  her,  she  had  herself  written  to  Mr.  Herbert, 
volunteering  her  services  for  the  self-denying  work. 

On  the  24th  of  October,  1854,  with  a  band  of  thirty-seven 
nurses,  she  left  England.  In  passing  through  France,  they 
were  received  with  the  most  gratifying  demonstrations  of 
respect  and  admiration :  in  many  instances  hotel-keepers  de- 
clining to  make  their  customary  charges,  and  all  classes  mani- 
festing the  deepest  interest  and  sympathy  in  their  mission. 

Miss  Nightingale  reached  Scutari  on  the  5th  of  November, 
just  before  the  wounded  in  the  action  of  Balaklava  were 
brought  down.  From  that  time,  until  the  end  of»the  war,  she 
devoted  herself,  amid  innumerable  trials  and  discouragements, 
arising  from  the  want  of  proper  supplies  and  medical  stores, 
to  the  care  and  nursing  of  the  sick  and  wounded.  Her  very 
presence  was  a  blessing.  Said  one  poor  soldier  :  "  Before  she 
came,  there  was  such  cursin'  and  swearin' ;  and  after'  that,  it 
was  as  holy  as  a  church." 

"  When  all  the  medical  officers  had  retired  for  the  night, 


QtJEEN    VICTORIA.  415 

and  silence  and  darkness  had  settled  down  upon  those  miles 
of  prostrate  sick,  she  might  be  observed  alone,  with  a  little 
lamp  in  her  hand,  making  her  solitary  rounds."  One  poor 
fellow,  describing  the  comfort  it  was,  even  thus  to  see  Florence 
pass,  said  :  "  She  would  speak  to  one  and  to  another,  and  nod 
and  smile  to  as  many  more; — but  she  couldn't  do  it  to  all, 
you  know ;  we  lay  there  by  hundreds ;  but  we  could  kiss  her 
shadow  as  it  fell,  and  lay  our  heads  on  our  pillows  again 
content !" 

**  On  England's  annals,  through  the  long 
Hereafter  of  her  speech  and  song, 
That  light  its  rays  shall  cast 
From  portals  of  the  past 

"  A  lady  with  a  lamp  shall  stand 
In  the  great  history  of  the  land, 
A  noble  type  of  good 
Heroic  womanhood." 

Questions. — Describe  the  position  and  defences  of  Sebastopol. — 
Why  was  the  capture  of  this  place  important  to  the  allies? — When 
and  with  what  force  did  they  land  in  the  Crimea? — Describe  the 
battle  of  the  Alma. — Give  an  account  of  the  further  advance  of  the 
allies. — Describe  their  position  at  Balaklava. — Where  were  erected 
the  Russian  lines  of  defence? — Describe  the  trenches  and  siege- 
works  of  the  allies.  » 

Name  and  describe  the  defences  of  the  Russians.— State  some  of 
the  difficulties  encountered  by  both  parties. — What  was  the  object 
of  both  during  the  siege  ?— What  was  the  result  of  the  first  bombard- 
ment?—Repeat  the  account  of  the  action  at  Balaklava.— Of  the 
battle  of  Inkermann.— When  was  the  Mamelon  carried  ?— What  led 
to  the  battle  of  the  Tchernaya-? — Describe  the  final  assault  on  Sebas- 
topol.— When  did  the  allies  leave  the  Crimea  ? — Relate  the  account 
given  of  Florence  Nightingale. 


416  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 


CHAPTER  LXVII. 

ENGLAND  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

Tt  would  be  impossible  within  tbe  limits  of  a  small  volume, 
much  less  of  a  single  chapter,  to  give  any  adequate  description 
of  the  condition  of  England  during  this  age  of  wonderful 
development  and  progress.  We  can  but  glance  at  a  few 
prominent  incidents  in  those  departments  of  social  improve- 
ment, which  in  other  centuries  have  been  considered  more  at 
length. 

The  most  pleasing  feature  in  the  history  of  religion  during 
the  present  period,  has  been  the  establishment  of  societies  for 
the  promotion  of  the  Christian  faith,  and  the  spread  of  its 
glorious  light  throughout  the  world.  Of  these,  noblest  in  de- 
sign and  success  is  "The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.^' 
God  chose  a  little  child  to  be  the  instigator  of  this  mighty 
enterprise. 

A  Welsh  girl,  tripping  over  her  native  hills,  was  met  by 
the  Rev.  Mr.  Charles  of  Bala.  He  stopped  the  child,. and 
asked  if  she  could  tell  him  the  text  on  which  he  had  preached 
the  preceding  Sunday.  The  little  girl  hung  her  head  as  she 
replied  that  she  had  not  been  able  to  get  at  the  Bible  that 
week.  On  inquiting  the  reason,  the  clergyman  found  that 
there  was  but  one  Bible  within  several  mile's,  and  that  this 
child  was  in  the  habit  of  walking  a  long  distance  every  week, 
over  rugged  mountain  paths,  for  the  privilege  of  reading  the 
word  of  God. 

The  fact  that  a  large  district  of  Great  Britain  was  destitute 
of  Bibles,  made  a  deep  impression  on  the  mind  of  Mr.  Charles. 
He  visited  London  and  spoke  of  it  to  others :  Christian  hearts 
were  roused,  nor  was  it  long  before  the  resolution  was  made 
to  print  and  sell  Bibles  at  such  prices  as  would  enable  the 
poor  to  obtain  them.  Thus  began,  in  1804,  with  a  subscrip- 
tion of  only  three  thousand  dollars,  "The  British  and  Foreign 


ENGLAND   IN    THE   NINETEENTH    CENTURY.  417 

Bible  Society/'  which  now  has  a  revenue  of  nearly  eight 
hundred  thousand  dollars,  and  has  circulated  thirty-seven 
millions  of  Bibles  and  Testaments. 

The  operations  of  those  societies  already  established  in 
England  for  the  promotion  of  Christianity,  were  greatly 
extended,  whilst  new  institutions  for  the  same  noble  purpose 
were  founded  both  by  the  Established  Church  and  by  dis- 
senters. By  the  exertions  of  such  societies  in  ICngland  and 
America,  the  blessings  of  Christianity  have  been  carried  to 
the  remotest  colonies  of  Great  Britain,  and  to  many  heathen 
lands.  Christian  schools  have  been  founded,  and  Christianity 
preached  in  China,  amid  the  jungles  of  India,  the  sands  of 
Africa,  and  the  isles  of  the  Pacific.  The  Sandwich  Islands 
have  become  Christianized,  and  of  barbarous  New  Zealand  it 
is  beautifully  recorded :  ^'  the  lion  has  been  converted  into 
the  lamb,  and  the  lamb  has  been  gathered  into  the  fold  of  the 
Kedeemer.'' 

Sunday-schools,  for  the  instruction  of  the  young,  first 
founded  in  1780,  by  Robert  Raikes,  have  become  ao  general, 
that  there  is  scarcely  a  parish  or  religious  society  throughout 
England  or  the  United  States,  in  which  they  do  not  now  exist. 

In  the  train  of  Christianity 

"  Steals  on,  large-hearted  Charity, 
Tempering  her  gifts,  that  seem  so  free, 

By  time  and  place, 
Till  not  a  woe  the  bleak  world  see, 
But  finds  her  grace." 

We  cannot  dwell  upon  all  that  she  has  been  doing  in  this 
(lur  day — the  institutions  that  men,  animated  by  her  pure 
.spirit,  have  founded  for  the  sick,  the  blind,  the  afflicted,  and 
the  outcast. 

One  such  noble  institution,  "  The  Metropolitan  Lunatic 
Asylum,"  at  Han  well,  must  stand  as  a  type  of  others.  Here 
for  the  first  time  in  England  the  barbarous  system  of  coercing 
the  insane,  gave  place  to  that  of  judicious  medical  treatment. 
Instead  of  being  chained  in  cells,  and  left  in  idleness,  a  prey 

2D 


418  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

to  the  fancies  of  their  own  disordered  intellects,  employment 
has  been  furnished  according  to  the  abilities  of  the  inmates : 
the  men  engaged  in  gardening  and  building;  the  women 
made  happy  by  the  industry  of  the  needle. 

In  the  history  of  literature  during  the  past  half  century,  an 
interesting  feature  has  been  the  new  style  of  periodical  review. 
The  first  which  appeared  was  "  The  Edinburgh  Review/' 
established  in  1802  by  the  Rev.  Sydney  Smith,  Messrs., 
afterwards  Lords  Jeffrey  and  Brougham,  and  other  men  of 
distinguished  talent.  The  contributors  to  the  columns  of 
this  periodical  were  Whigs,  who  advocated  successively  the 
great  reform  questions  of  the  day.  The  boldness  and  ability 
of  their  writings  gave  no  little  support  to  the  promoters  of 
the  abolition  of  slavery,  the  repeal  of  the  corn-laws,  &c.  "  The 
Quarterly  Review,"  a  Tory  publication,  was  established  in 
London  in  the  year  1809.  It  is  distinguished  for  beauty  of 
literary  composition,  and  its  columns  have  been  enriched  by 
the  genius  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  Southey,  and  Lord  Canning. 
"Blackwood's  Magazine,"  designed  to  counteract  the  Whig 
influence  of  ^'  The  Edinburgh  Review,"  was  set  up  in  1817 
by  its  able  editor.  Professor  Wilson,  so  well  known  as  "  Chris- 
topher North." 

In  the  year  1827  "  The  Society  for  promoting  the  Diffusion 
of  Useful  Knowledge"  commenced  its  noble  career.  It  was 
founded  mainly  by  the  exertions  of  Mr.  Brougham,  Lord 
John  Russell,  and  the  benevolent  Friend,  WilHam  Allen,  in 
order  to  effect  the  publication,  in  a  cheap  forin,  of  elementary 
treatises  on  scientific  subjects; — such  as  the  workingman  could 
understand  and  profit  by. 

The  society  has  since  greatly  extended  its  operations. 
Through  the  efforts  of  Mr.  Knight  in  conjunction  with  it, 
such  valuable  works  as  "The  Penny  Magazine,"  "The  Penny 
Cyclopedia,"  and  "  The  Library  of  Entertaining  Knowledge," 
and  many  others  of  an  equally  useful  character,  have  been 
given  to  the  world. 

In  the  useful  and  industrial,  as  well  as  in  the  fine  arts,  the 
improvements  and  discoveries  of  the  last  fifty  years  well-nigh 


ENGLAND  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.     419 

surpass  those  of  all  preceding  centuries  combined.  From  the 
invention  of  lucifer  matches  up  to  the  wonders  of  steam  and 
the  electric  telegraph,  each  year  seems  to  unfold  some  ever 
new  and  marvellous  triumph  of  the  genius  of  man  over  the 
world  of  matter. 

In  the  year  1811,  ^'The  Comet/'  the  first  British  steamboat, 
was  launched  upon  the  Clyde,  and  now  one-half  the  navy  of 
Great  Britain  consists  of  steam-vessels  of  war.  Steamboats 
ply  by  hundreds  around  the  British  islands.  The  voyage  to 
America  only  occupies  ten  days,  and  that  to  India,  which  once 
required  three  or  four  months,  is  now  reduced  to  six  weeks. 
In  less  than  fifty  years  after  ^' The  Comet/'  "The  Great 
Eastern,"  700  feet  in  length,  of  22,000  tons  burthen,  with  a 
power  equal  to  11,000  horses,  and  room  for  the  transportation 
of  10,000  troops,  has  made  her  first  passage  across  the  Atlantic 
in  eleven  days. 

The  first  successful  experiment  of  a  steam-carriage  propelled 
over  an  iron  railway,  was  performed  in  the  year  1805,  at 
Merthyr  Tydvil,  in  Wales.  On  this  occasion  the  locomotive 
moved  at  the  rate  of  five  miles  an  hour,  drawing  ten  tons  of 
coal.  Several  years  passed  before  the  construction  of  a  rail- 
way for  travelling  On  the  15th  September,  1830,  the  Liver- 
pool and  Manchester  Railroad  was  opened  Now  many  thou- 
sand miles  of  railway  spread  over  the  surface  of  England,  and 
intersect  it  like  a  net-work :  first-class  carriages  give  ease  to 
the  traveller,  whilst  with  security  and  comfort  he  pursues  his 
journey  at  the  rate  of  less  than  one  and  a  half  penny  per  mile. 

In  triumphs  of  architecture,  especially  as  exhibited  in  the 
construction  of  great  public  works,  the  age  has  been  peculiarly 
fruitful.  Among  such  works  may  be  mentioned,  the  famous 
Thames  Tunnel,  the  Tubular  and  Suspension  Bridges  over 
the  Menai  Straits,  the  new  Houses  of  Parliament,  and  several 
of  the  beautiful  bridges  over  the  Thames.  Of  the  latter, 
Waterloo,  erected,  as  the  name  would  intimate,  in  the  year 
1815,  was  declared  by  Can  ova  to  be  the  finest  bridge  in 
Europe,  and  alone  worth  the  journey  from  Rome  to  London 
to  see. 


420  llltSTOKi     Ui'    L.NULAiND. 

A  marvel  of  this  age,  which  has  scarcely  yet  ceased  to 
astonish  the  world,  is  the  electric  telegraph  This  wonderful 
application  of  the  power  of  electro-magnetism  was  first  made 
in  the  United  States  in  the  year  1832.  Its  earliest  introduc- 
tion into  England  was  in  1840.  Along  these  wires  messages 
are  transmitted,  almost  with  the  rapidity  of  thought,  and 
there  is  scarcely  a  village  in  England  where  communications 
may  not  be  forwarded  by  telegraph. 

In  closing  this  brief  review,  we  would  not  omit  all  mention 
of  the  Crystal  Palace,  that  remarkable  monument  of  social 
progress,  which  has  well  been  named  the  last  wonder  of  the 
world. 

To  the  Prince  Consort  of  England  is  due  the  praise  of 
having  originated  the  grand  idea  of  an  "  Exhibition  of  the 
Industry  of  all  Nations."  To  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir  Joseph) 
Paxton  belongs  the  honor  of  having  designed  the  marvellous 
structure  of  iron  and  glass,  wherein  might  be  exhibited  fair 
samples  of  the  world's  art  and  industry.  This,  the  largest 
compact  building  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  was  erected  in 
Hyde  Park,  London,  in  less  than  nine  months,  out  of  mate- 
rials hitherto  wholly  untried  in  the  great  constructions  of 
ancient  or  modern  times. 

*♦  Like  Arabia's  matchless  palace, 
Child  of  magic's  strong  decree, 
One  vast  globe  of  living  sapphire, 
Floor,  walls,  columns,  canopy." 

Nor  was  the  exhibition  within  unworthy  of  the  beautiful 
structure  There,  during  the  summer  of  1851,  was  repre- 
sented all  that  was  most  excellent  in  use  or  beauty  of  the 
industry  of  all  lands.  Literally  one  hundred  nations  from 
Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  America,  and  the  fifth  continent, 
Australia,  united  in  the  celebration  of  this  jubilee  of  art. 
From  the  1st  day  of  May,  when  the  queen  in  person  opened 
to  her  subjects  and  to  the  world  the  portals  of  this  marvellous 
palace,  so  great  was  the  throng  of  admiring  visitors,  from 
every  rank  and  class  in  society,  and  almost  from  every  quarter 


ENGLAND  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.     421 

of  the  globe,  that  the  great  exhibition  of  1851  was  aptiy 
named  "  The  World's  Fair/'  To  the  looker-on  in  London,  it 
might  have  seemed  as  if  the  world  had  indeed  given  itself  a 
holiday,  and  gone  thither  to  enjoy  it. 

When  the  exhibition  was  over,  many  schemes  were  devised 
for  the  future  disposition  of  the  building.  At  length,  in  May 
of  1852,  the  Crystal  Palace  in  Hyde  Park  was  purchased  by  a 
private  company  of  English  gentleihen.  They  designed  that 
this  noble  structure  "  should  rise  again,  greatly  enhanced  in 
grandeur  and  beauty )  that  it  should  form  a  palace  for  the 
multitude,  where,  to  the  inhabitants  of  London  especially, 
should  be  alForded,  in  wholesome  country  air,  amidst  the 
beauties  of  nature,  the  elevating  treasures  of  art,  and  the 
instructive  marvels  of  science,  an  accessible  and  inexpensive 
substitute  for  the  injurious  and  debasing  amusements  of  a 
crowded  metropolis." 

The  Crystal  Palace  rising  amid  the  natural  beauties  of 
Sydenham",  in  Kent,  within  a  few  miles  of  London,  has  amply 
fulfilled  this  noble  design.  The  palace  and  its  grounds  occupy 
two  hundred  acres.  To  the  lover  of  out-door  beauty,  parterres 
filled  with  the  richest  and  gayest  flowers,  green  terraces, 
fountains,  parks,  lakes,  and  every  attraction  of  landscape- 
gardening,  allure  in  this  fascinating  spot.  To  the  lover  of  art 
there  exists  within  a  world  of  interest  and  dehght.  And  yet 
so  simple  is  the  arrangement  of  the  treasures  witKin  this 
mighty  edifice,  that  there  is  no  confusion, — nothing  inharmo- 
nious. In  the  fine  arts  and  industrial  courts  and  galleries, 
the  visitor,  whether  a  man  of  science  or  of  literature — poet, 
painter,  sculptor,  artisan,  or  mechanic,  may  learn,  as  it  were 
in  epitome,  of  all  that  his  fellow-man  has  accomplished,  almost 
from  the  first  dawn  of  civilization  down  to  the  present  moment. 

In  the  great  nave,  sixteen  hundred  and  eight  feet  in  length, 
is  beheld- a  glorious  vista  of  fountains  and  foliage,  flowers  and 
statuary.  On  either  side,  tiers  of  pendant  baskets  filled  with 
graceful  vines  and  richest  bloom,  perfume  the  air  with  deli- 
cious fragrance.  The  ear  is  regaled  with  the  singing  of  birds, 
the  playing  of  the  grand  orgaii,  or  the  music  of  the  orchestra, 
36 


422  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

or,  if  these  are  hushed,  with  the  refreshing  sound  of  the 
fountains.  Prominent  in  the  foreground  of  the  picture  rises 
the  transparent  fountain  of  glass,  which,  gUttering  with  all 
the  colors  of  the  rainbow,  and  towering  from  a  solid  base  up 
to  a  point,  pours  its  unceasing  streams  upon  the  crystal  basin 
below.  In  this  sheet  of  water  float  the  gigantic  leaves  of  the 
Victoria  Regia.  In  the  basins  of  other  fountains  are  to  be 
found  rare  and  curious  aquatic  plants,  water-lilies,  gold-fish, 
and  in  some  basins  all  the  curiosities  of  the  aquarium. 

Beds  or  borders  ranging  on  either  side  of  the  nave,  in  front 
of  the  various  courts,  contain  the  rich  botanical  treasures  of 
the  palace.  In  these  groves  may  be  found  the  trees  and 
shrubs  and  plants  of  almost  every  clime.  Their  waving  foli- 
age forms  a  pleasing  background  to  the  numerous  specimens 
of  statuary,  which  singly  or  in  sculptured  groups,  adorn  the 
whole  extent  of  this  magnificent  nave.  And  over  all,  height- 
ening immeasurably  the  efiect  of  this  scene  of  beauty,  stretches 
the  arched  roof,  with  its  delicate  aerial  tint,  spanning  the 
whole  as  it  were  with  a  vault  of  opal. 

Thus  stands  the  Crystal  Palace — an  enduring  monument 
of  a  new  and  wonderful  architecture,  a  permauent  palace  of 
education  and  art  for  the  use  of  mankind,  and  an  ample  ful- 
fillment of  the  noblest  designs  of  its  foundation. 

"Forms  of  beauty,  shapes  of  wonder, 
Trophies  of  triumphant  toil ; 
Never  Athens,  Rome,  Palmyra, 
Gazed  on  such  a  costly  spoil." 

Questions. — Mention  the  most  prominent  features  in  the  history 
of  religion  during  this  period. — Relate  the  account  of  the  origin  of 
the  Bible  Society. — When  and  by  whom  were  Sunday-schools  found- 
ed ? — What  is  said  of  the  reviews  and  magazines  of  this  time  ? 

By  whom  was  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge 
established? — What  valuable  works  has  it  published? — What  is  re- 
marked of  the  improvements  and  discoveries  of  this  century? — What 
mention  is  made  of  steam-vessels  ? — Relate  what  is' said  of  railways. 
— Name  some  of  the  architectural  triumphs  of  this  age. — Repeat  the 
account  given  of  the  electric  telegraph.— Repeat  the  description 
given  of  the  Crystal  Palace  at  Sydenham. 


INDIA.  423 


PART  XII. 

COLONIAL. 
A.  D.  1801—1860. 

Look  to  the  East,  where  Ganges'  swarthy  race 
Shall  shake  your  mighty  empire  to  its  base. 
Lo !  there  Rebellion  rears  her  ghastly  head, 
And  glares  the  Nemesis  of  native  dead." 


CHAPTER  LXVm. 

INDIA. 

MA.HRATTA  WARS — BURMESE  WARS — THE  AFGHAN  INVASION  AND  DISASTER. 

At  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century  we  find  the 
extent  and  importance  of  the  British  dependencies  so  greatly 
increased,  that  from  this  date  a  separate  chapter  will  be 
devoted  to  the  colonial  history  of  Great  Britain.  First  in 
importance  is  India. 

During  the  first  quarter  of  the  century  upon  which  we 
have  entered,  the  English  were  engaged  in  wars  with  various 
robber  tribes  of  Hindostan,  and  in  an  important  contest  with 
the  Burmese  empire.  Among  the  native  powers  which  most 
formidably  threatened  the  Company's  territories  in  India, 
were  the  Mahrattas,  the  Grhoorkas,  and  the  Pindarrees. 

The  sway  of  the  Mahrattas  extended  over  a  population  of 
forty  millions;  their  frontier  on  the  north  reaching  to  the 
Indus  and  the  Himmalayas,  and  on  the  south  nearly  to  the 
extremity  of  the  Indian  peninsula.  They  had  overthrown  the 
power  of  the  Great  Mogul,  and  spread  devastation,  tyranny, 
and  anarchy  throughout  the  land. 


424  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

It  was  in  wars  with  the  Mahrattas,  that  Sir  Arthur 

1803.  . 

Wellesley,  afterwards  Duke  of  Wellington,  laid  the 
foundation  of  his  military  fame.  In  the  great  battle  of 
Assaye,  won  in  September,  1803,  against  overwhelming  num- 
bers of  the  enemy,  began  the  victories  of  the  "  Iron  Duke" — 
the  hero  of  Waterloo ;  the  conqueror  of  Napoleon.  General 
Lake,  another  of  the  East  India  Company's  able  soldiers, 
defeated  an  army  of  French  and  natives  in  a  battle  fought 
within  sight  of  the  palaces  and  minarets  of  Delhi,  and  restored 
the  Mohammedan  sovereign  to  his  throne.  These  victories 
broke  the  power  of  this  formidable  tribe. 

The  Company,  anxious  to  pursue  a  policy  of  peace  and 
conciliation  towards  the  natives,  and  thus  to  avoid  the  expense 
of  conquest,  authorized  a  "treaty  with  the  Mahrattas,  which 
was  far  too  favorable  in  its  concessions  to  the  conquered 
enemy.  The  moral  influence  of  such  a  treaty  over  a 
vain-glorious  and  treacherous  people,  who  are  to  be 
trusted  as  subjects,  allies,  and  neighbors,  only  so  long  as  they 
are  kept  in  awe,  was  extremely  prejudicial  to  the  Company's 
interests  in  India.  Ten  years  later  the  Mahrattas  organized 
a  formidable  confederacy  against  British  power. 

Meanwhile  the  English  had  come  into  collision  with  the 
Ghoorkas,  a  warlike  tribe,  inhabiting,  the  mountain  regions 
of  Nepaul,  in  the  northern  part  of  India.  They  were  superior 
in  skill  and  bravery  to  any  Hindoo  people  whom  the  con- 
querors had  yet  encountered,  and  at  first  their  unlooked-for 
valor  made  even  British  troops  recoil.  In  the  end  they  were 
defeated,  and  entered  into  a  treaty,  by  which  a  large  district 
of  country  lying  east  of  the  Sutlej  River  was  added  to  the 
British  dominions. 

Scarcely  had  the  Ghoorka  war  ended,  before  the  English 
troops  were  required  to  take  the  field  against  the  powerful 
Mahrattas  and  their  confederates — the  active,  cruel  Pindar- 
rees.  These  latter  were  bands  of  cavalry  gathered  from  every 
part  of  India.  They  would  burst  upon  the  cultivated  plains 
and  rich  villages  of  the  Company's  territory,  with  all  the 
suddenness  and  fury  of  a  whirlwind.     They  came  and  were 


INDIA.  425 

gone,  leaving  behind  them  ruin,  devastation,  and  death. 
Truly  of  them  it  might  be  said  :  "  The  land  is  as  the  garden 
of  Eden  before  them,  and  behind  them  a  desolate  wilderness." 

,c,«         Vigorous    measures   for  the   destruction  of  these 
and      cruel  banditti  were  taken  by  the  Indian  government. 

^  *  '  They  were  pursued  and  surrounded  by  the  troops  of 
the  Presidencies ;  were  cut  off  from  their  Mahratta  confede- 
rates; sustained  successive  defeats,  and  at  length,  when 
Chutoo,  the  most  darmg  of  the  robber  chieftains,  had  fallen 
by  a  death  more  fearful  than  that  upon  the  battle-field, — a 
prey  to  the  fierce  tiger  in  the  lonely  jungle, — he  was  the  last 
warrior  of  the  Pindarrees.  By  the  year  1818,  the  power  of 
these  marauders  was  subdued.  In  those  provinces  which  had 
been  so  long  devastated  by  war,  rapine,  and  cruelty,  order  and 
tranquillity  were  established,  and  the  inhabitants  had  reason 
to  bless  the  new  rule,  under  which  they  might  sow  and  reap 
their  fields,  without  fear  of  the  Pindarree  robber  or  the  harsh 
Mahratta  master. 

Between  the  years  1823-1826,  during  the  administration 
of  Lord  Amherst,  war  was  carried  on  with  the  Burmese.  In 
the  year  1798,  ten  thousand  wretched  Burmese  had  rushed 
across  the  frontier,  and  implored,  in  British  territory,  protec- 
tion from  the  intolerable  oppression  of  their  own  governmoit, 
These  poor  people  declared  they  would  flee  to  the  recesses  of 
the  pestilent  jungle,  and  there,  amid  the  haunts  of  the  lion 
and  the  tiger,  subsist  on  leaves  and  reptiles,  rather  than 
return  to  live  again  under  Burmese  tyranny. 

The  British  government,  though  alarmed  at  their  numbers, 
could  not  refuse  a  shelter  to  the  starving  suppliants.  AVaste 
lands  were  appropriated  to  their  use,  and  a  settlement  of  forty 
thousand  of  these  peaceful  invaders  was  made  upon  them. 
In  the  course  of  subsequent  years,  the  expulsion  of  the  fugi- 
tives was  frequently  demanded  by  the  Burmese  government, 
and  invariably  refused  by  the  English.  This  refusal,  in  the 
year  1823,  led  to  hostilities  on  the  part  of  the  king  of  Ava, 
the  ruler  of  the  Burmese  Empire,  which  precipitated  war. 
Neither  party  had  sufficiently  counted  the  cost  of  th's 
36  ^* 


426  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

undertaking.  The  vain-glorious  king  of  Ava,  ever  the  con- 
queror in  his  wars  with  surrounding  states,  doubted  not  of 
victory  over  the  EngHsh, — and  on  one  occasion  even  provided 
golden  fetters,  with  which  to  bind  the  Governor-General  of 
India.  The  Enghsh,  on  their  part,  had  not  fully  considered 
the  nature  of  the  contest, — carried  on  amid  swamps  and  jun- 
gles and  dense  forests,  under  the  burning  sun  of  Birmah,  and 
against  almost  innumerable  foes,  intrenched  behind  stockades 
of  the  nearly  impervious  teak-wood.  The  natives,  moreover, 
were  animated  by  a  tradition  that  their  capital  would  remain 
invincible  till,  a  "magical  vessel  should  advance  against  it 
without  oars  or  sails." 
1824  ^^  ^^®  ^^^  British  perseverance  ana  valor  tri- 
to  umphed.  The  two  important  towns  of  Rangoon  and 
Prome  were  taken,  and  Sir  Archibald  Campbell, 
advancing  within  forty  miles  of  the  capital,  gained  such  deci- 
sive victories,  that  the  Burmese  government  were  glad  to  sue 
for  peace.  Nor  were  the  conditions  of  the  native  prophecy 
wholly  unfulfilled.  With  the  reinforcements  sent  from  Hin- 
dostan,  came  the  war-steamer  Diana,  "the  magical  vessel 
without  oars  or  sails,"  which  aided  greatly  to  secure  victory  to 
the  conqueror.  By  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  which  was  con- 
cluded in  February  of  1826,  the  king  of  Ava  paid  a  million 
pounds  towards  the  expenses  of  the  war,  and  ceded  to  the 
English  the  provinces  which  they  had  conquered. 

Whilst  the  hostilities  with  Birmah  were  in  progress,  an 
event  occurred  in  Hindostan  which  tended  greatly  to  confirm 
the  power  of  the  British  there.  This  was  the  capture  of 
Bhurtpore,  a  fortress  north  of  the  river  Ganges,  near  x\gra, 
considered  the  most  impregnable  in  India.  The  nation 
believed  that  "  it  was  destined  never  to  be  taken,  and  that 
against  its  ramparts  the  tide  of  British  invasion  would  beat  in 
vain.''  In  the  summer  of  1823  the  rajah  of  Bhurtpore  died, 
and  a  usurper  claimed  the  throne.  The  English  espoused 
the  cause  of  the  rightful  successor,  but  the  usurping  rajah, 
confiding  in  the  strength  of  his  fortress,  and  encouraged  by 
tlir  hoRt  of  discontented  spirits  who  flocked  to  him  from  all 


INDIA.  427 

parts  of  India,  determined  to  defy  the  hitherto  invincible 
power  of  the  conquerors.  Lord  Combermere  was  sent  against 
Bhurtpore.  Mines  were  run  under  the  strong  fortress,  and 
on  the  18th  of  January,  1826,  the  assault  was  made.  The 
mines  were  sprung  with  fearful  effect;  and  the  breaches  were 
stormed  and  carried  with  desperate  bravery.  "  The  bulwark 
of  Hindostan"  was  won,  "  and  the  halo  of  invincibility  again 
settled  round  the  brows  of  the  victors.''  During  Lord  Am- 
herst's administration,  Malacca,  Singapore,  and  other 
Dutch  possessions  in  India  were  ceded  to  the  British 
government  by  the  king  of  the  Netherlands. 

After  the  fall  of  Bhurtpore,  the  Directors  of  the  East  India 
Company  became  more  stringent  than  ever  in  requiring  of 
their  governors-general  the  strict  pursuance  of  a  pacific  policy 
towards  the  native  states.  They  deprecated  the  expense  of 
wars  and  subsidiary  alHances.  The  army  was  greatly  reduced, 
and  changes  made  which  tended  to  lessen  both  its  strength 
and  its  efficiency. 

Meanwhile  danger  threatened  from  the  north.  Russia,  in 
her  march  of  conquest,  had  humbled  Persia,  and  now  menaced 
the  English  possessions  in  India.  The  wild  mountain  regions 
of  Afghanistan  presented  the  only  remaining  barrier  to  the 
aggressions  of  the  czar. 

With  the  design  of  establishing  in  that  country  a  power, 
which,  owing  its  elevation  and  support  to  the  English,  would 
remain  faithful  to  them,  the  Indian  government  deposed  Dost 
Mohammed,  and  placed  Shah  Soojah  upon  the  throne.  Dost 
Mohammed,  though  an  usurper,  was  an  able  and  efficient 
prince,  and  extremely  popular  with  his  subjects.  Shah 
Soojah  was  a  weak  and  cruel  tyrant,  and  as  much  detested  as 
his  rival  was  beloved. 

To  conduct  the  new  Shah  to  his  throne,  two  large  European 
forces  made  a  long  and  perilous  march  through  the  Bolan 
and  Khyber  passes — terrific  defiles  in  the  mountains  which 
separate  Afghanistan  from  India.  In  August  of  1839,  the 
English,  with  their  puppet  sovereign,  arrived  at  Cabul.  Their 
advance  had  been  victorious.     They  had  captured  the  far- 


428  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

famed  fortress  of  Ghizni,  whicli  lies  to  the  south-west  of 
Cabul. 

During  the  approach  to  Ghizni,  an  act  of  barbarity  was 
committed,  which  displayed  the  ferocious  character  of  the 
sovereign  whom  the  British  sought  to  invest  with  power. 
The  Ghazees,  a  fanatic  sect  of  Mohammedans,  instigated  by 
their  priests,  had  fallen  upon  the  invading  army.  They  were 
defeated,  and  the  captured,  fifty  in  number,  brought  into  the 
presence  of  Shah-Soojah.  Bold  with  the  fearlessness  of  fana- 
ticism, they  reviled  the  king  to  his  face,  and  one  of  them 
attacked  an  attendant  in  the  royal  presence.  Upon  this  the 
Shah  gave  an  order  for  the  massacre  of  them  all,  and  himself 
witnessed  the  execution  of  the  dreadful  deed. 

"  This  atrocious  massacre/'  says  Alison,  "  was  never  forgotten 
in  Afghanistan;  it  increased  the  indisposition  of  the  people  to 
receive  the  sovereign  sought  to  be  forced  upon  them,  and  led 
to  an  awful  retribution,  when  the  Afghans  got  the  upper  hand, 
and  the  wild  cry  of  the  Ghazees  was  heard  in  the  Coord  Cabul 
pass." 

Dost  Mohammed  fled  to  the  solitudes  of  the  Hindoo-Koosh. 
He  had  exhibited  the  conduct  of  a  hero.  Commanding  the 
timid  and  the  irresolute  to  leave  his  ranks,  he  endeavored  to 
rally  the  true  believers  around  the  standard  of  their  religion. 
But  the  coward,  traitorous  Asiatics  were  overawed  by  the 
English  bayonets.  They  refused  his  earnest  appeal  to  stand 
by  him  in  one  last  charge  against  the  invaders,  in  which 
onset  he  had  resolved  to  die,  leaving  them,  his  followers,  free 
to  make  their  own  terms  with  his  successful  rival. 

The  conquerors  entered  the  capital;  and,  accompanied  by  a 
magnificent  retinue,  Shah-Soojah  was  reinstated  in  his  strong- 
guarded  palace  in  the  citadel  of  Bala-Hissar.  At  the  close 
of  the  year  a  portion  of  the  army  returned  to  India,  leaving 
garrisons  at  Cabul,  Ghizni,  Candahar,  and  Jellalabad. 

So  prosperous  seemed  the  issue  of  the  expedition,  so  agree- 
able the  life  of  the  oflScers  in  Cabul,  that  they  sent  for  their 
families  to  join  them,  and  had  not  a  thought  of  danger.  But 
perils  of  the  most  fearful  kind  were  gathering  around  them. 


INDIA.  429 

The  hatred  of  the  Afghans  towards  the  Shah  and  his  English 
supporters  was  intense,  and  during  the  two  following 

to       years  the  troops  were  constantly  engaged  in  putting 

down    disaffection    among   the    native   tribes.      The 

English  were  more  than  a  thousand  miles  away  from  their 

strongholds  in  India,  and  in  the  midst  of  a  country  where 

treachery  and  enmity  surrounded  them  on  every  side 

Andyet  so  great  was  their  confidence  in  British  power  and 
prestige,  that  it  blinded  them  to  their  danger.  Even  when 
insurrection  was  rife  around  them,  the  general  stationed  his 
men  in  cantonments  outside  of  the  walls,  instead  of  concen- 
trating them  in  the  impregnable  fortress  of  the  Bala-Hissar. 
On  the  night  of  the  2d  of  November,  1841,  the  storm  which 
had  been  so  long  gathering,  burst  upon  the  heads  of  this 
infatuated  garrison.  The  houses  of  the  English  officers  were 
first  attacked,  many  were  put  to  death,  the  guard  of  Sepoys, 
twenty-eight  in  number,  were  massacred,  and  all  the  horrora 
of  plunder  and  murder  were  enacted.  The  terrified  English 
hoped  in  vain  for  aid  from  Jellalabad  and  Candahar.  At 
those  distant  points,  General  Nott  and  Sir  Robert  Sale  were 
holding  out  against  the  enemy.  At  length,  after  a  defence 
of  forty  days'  duration,  the  English  garrison  at  Cabul  was 
forced  to  conclude  a  treaty,  by  which  they  agreed  to  abandon 
Afghanistan,  and  restore  Dost  Mohammed  to  the  throne. 
On  the  6th  of  January,  the  festival  of  the  Epiphany,  began 
that  fearful,  fatal  retreat.  Far  and  wide  spread  a  deep 
covering  of  snow;  the  intense  cold  defied  the  warmest 
clothing;  their  way  lay  through  the  Coord  Cabul  pass,  a 
narrow,  deep  defile,  five  miles  in  length,  and  the  bed  of  a 
mountain  torrent,  which  had  twenty-eight  times  to  be  crossed 
in  the  descent.  Hostile  Afghans,  from  the  precipices  over- 
head, fired  down  upon  the  defenceless  fugitives;  the  edges 
of  the  waterfall  were  so  coated  with  ice,  that  no  secure 
footing  could  be  found  for  the  beasts  of  burden.  The  few 
who  emerged  alive  from  this  fearful  defile,  continued  their 
march  over  the  table-land.  Here  fresh  perils  awaited  them. 
Many  perished  from  hunger,  cold,  and  disease,  others  fell  by 


430  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

the  swords  of  the  Afghans,  and  of  the  seventeen  thousand 
souls  who  had  started  from  Cabul,  hut  one  man  reached 
Jellalabad  ahve,  to  tell  the  mournful  tale.  Intense  was  the 
mingled  feeling  of  horror  and  grief  which  thrilled  every  heart, 
when  the  news  of  this  catastrophe  spread  over  India.  Fear- 
ful* was  the  anxiety  for  those  who  were  left  still  exposed  in 
that  wild  hostile  country.  There  was  the  little  garrison  under 
Sir  Robert  Sale  in  the  unprotected  fortress  of  Jellalabad. 

At  Candahar,  in  an  equally  perilous  position,  was  the  force 
under  General  Nott.  And  more  terrible  still,  was  the  dreadful 
uncertainty  as  to  the  fate  of  Lady  Sale  and  the  captive  women 
who  had  been  carried  off  by  the  Afghan  chiefs,  after  emerging 
from  the  horrors  of  the  frightful  Coord  Cabul  pass.  These 
anxieties  were  greatly  heightened  by  the  effect  which  the 
recent  disaster  had  produced  on  the  vain-glorious,  treacherous 
natives  of  India.  The  jMohammedans  especially,  hated  those 
who  maintained  supremacy  in  the  country  which  had  so  long 
owned  the  Moslem's  sway,  and,  elated  by  this  check  to  British 
power,  they  conceived  the  hope  of  a  general  rising,  in  which 
Hindoo  and  Moslem  should  unite  to  expel  the  hated  conqueror. 

Never  had  British  power  in  India  been  so  fearfully  im- 
perilled, and  never  were  the  energies  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
more  thoroughly  aroused,  or  more  efficiently  put  forth  to  meet 
the  danger.  First  the  beleaguered  garrisons  must  be  relieved. 
We  cannot  dwell  upon  the  incidents  which  followed..  The 
noble  heroism  on  the  part  of  the  stout-hearted  few  who  held 
the  fortresses  against  such  fierce  and  fearful  numbers,  nor  the 
bravery  of  those  who,  for  their  relief,  scaled  the  frightful 
mountain-passes  swarming  with  foes.  At  length,  after  months 
of  agonizing  suspense  on  the  one  side,  and  hard  conflict  on  the 
other,  these  brave  garrisons  were  relieved,  and  from  Candahar 
and  Jellalabad,  the  latter  station  being  seventy-eight  miles 
cast  of  Cabul,  English  troops  moved  towards  that  place.  On 
the  7th  September,  1842,  the  division  under  General  Pollock, 
from  Jellalabad,  began  their  march 

The  route  lay  through  the  terrible  Coord  Cabul  pass,  literally- 
strewed  and  lined  with  the  skeletons  and  bones  of  the  thou- 


INDIA.  -ii)! 

sands  of  their  fellow-soldiers  who  had  perished  in  the  massacre 
of  the  preceding  winter.  They  could  not  tread  but  on  the 
bones  of  their  fallen  comrades.  The  entrance  of  the  pass  was 
disputed  by  the  fierce  and  confident  Afghans,  but  they  were 
driven  from  their  heights  by  the  intrepid  onset  of  the  British, 
and  the  soldiers  entered  the  fearful  defile,  their  feelings  roused 
to  the  highest  pitch  as  at  every  step  they  encountered  the 
remains  of  their  murdered  countrymen.  On  the  15th  they 
entered  Cabul,  and  from  the  fortress  of  the  Bala-Hissar  soon 
floated  the  British  flag ;  and  whilst  salutes  of  artillery  thun- 
dered from  the  battlements,  the  bands  of  the  several  regi- 
ments played  the  national  anthem,  and  cheers  of  exultation 
resounded  from  the  whole  army.  Fifteen  thousand  troops 
united  at  Cabul  were  enough  to  strike  terror  into  the  Aighans^ 
and  their  chiefs  hastened  to  tender  their  submission.  The 
king  whom  the  British  had  attempted  to  place  on  the  throne 
had  been  murdered.  The  Afghans  had  been  punished  for 
their  treachery  and  cruelty,  and  now  it  was  determined  by 
the  government  to  abandon  the  country,  release  Dost  Mo- 
hammed, and  leave  Afghanistan  to  the  sovereign  of  its 
choice. 

One  duty  more  remained  before  they  should  abandon  this 
fatal  country — the  rescue  of  Lady  Sale  and  the  captive  women 
who  had  been  seized  during  the  retreat  from  Cabul.  They 
had  been  carried  to  the  mountain  regions  of  Afghanistan, 
towards  the  Hindoo  Koosh.  They  were  not  treated  harshly, 
but  suffered  great  anxiety  concerning  the  husbands,  fathers, 
and  brothers,  whom  they  had  left  in  the  hostile  country. 
They  knew  not  of  the  victories  there  achieved,  but  when 
intelligence  of  these  reached  their  gaolers,  the  latter  prepared 
to  send  their  captives  across  the  mountains  to  be  sold  for 
slaves  in  Turkestan.  From  this  horrible  fate  they  were  saved 
by  the  approach  of  an  English  force  for  their  relief 

Questions. — Describe  the  power  of  the  Mahrattas. — By  whom 
and  in  what  battles  were  they  defeated? — What  motives  induced  the 
English  to  treat  with   them  favorably  ? — Relate  the  result  of  this 


432  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

conduct. — Give  the  account  of  the  Ghoorka  war. — Describe  the  Pin- 
darrees. — Relate  the  account  of  their  destruction. — Mention  the 
circumstances  which  led  to  the  Burmese  war. — What  difficulties  did 
the  English  encounter  during  this  contest? — What  was  the  result  of 
it. — Repeat  the  account  given  of  Bhurtpore,  and  of  its  capture. — 
What  policy  animated  the  East  India  Company  ? 

What  danger  threatened  the  English  possessions  in  India  ? — How 
did  the  Indian  government  seek  to  avert  this  danger  ? — Relate  the 
account  given  of  the  expedition  to  Cabul. — What  was  the  result  of 
this  expedition  ? — Describe  the  i-etreat  through  the  Coord  Cabul 
pass. — Relate  the  effect  of  this  disaster  upon  the  natives. — Mention 
the  efforts  made  for  the  defence  and  relief  of  the  beleaguered  garri- 
sons.— Describe  the  passage  of  General  Pollock's  army  to  Cabul. — 
Relate  the  account  given  of  Lady  Sale  and  the  captives. 


CHAPTER  LXIX. 

INDIA. 


WAn    WITH     SINCE — GWALIOR — SIKH    CONFEDERACY — BtTUMESE    WAR — AN- 
NEXATION   OP    OUDE — THE    INDIAN    MUTINY. 

The  fruitless  and  fatal  invasion  of  Afghanistan  led  to  an- 
other war  and  another  conquest.  A  portion  of  the  English 
troops  on  their  way  to  Cabul,  marched  through  Sinde,  a  rich 
territory  bordering  the  lower  course  of  the  river  Indus.  The 
country  was  governed  by  a  body  of  nobles  called  Ameers,  who 
were  jealous  of  the  encroachments  of  British  power.  When 
the  first  English  vessel  ascended  the  Indus,  they  exclaimed  : 
^'  Alas  !  Sinde  is  gone ;  the  English  have  seen  the  river." 

Nor  were  their  fears  groundless.  The  English,  covetous 
of  the  advantages  which  the  control  of  this  province  would 
afford,  forced  treaties  peculiarly  advantageous  to  themselves, 
upon  the  unwilling  Ameers.  The  government  of  Sinde 
showed  no  disposition  to  observe  these  treaties,  and  Sir 
Charles  Napier  was  sent  to  reduce  them  to  submission.  Two 
important  victories  achieved  the  conquest  of  the  province, 
and    Sinde   was    annexed    to    the    British   dominions.      The 


INDIA.  483 

Ameers,  like  all  the  native  rulers  of  India,  had  exercised 
tyranny  and  cruel  oppression  towards  their  subjects.  The 
removal  of  the  military  despotism  under  which  they  had  so 
long  suffered,  was  a  great  blessing  to  the  native  peasantry. 
They  welcomed  English  rule,  and  afterwards  proved  their 
appreciation  of  its  value,  when,  during  the  terrible  rebellion 
of  1857,  they  remained  faithful  to  the  government.     ,  ^-z/j^  ^^  X/^6 

To  the  north  of  Sinde  lies  a  district  called  the  Punjaub, 
"the  country  of  five  rivers,"  which  was  held  in  subjection  by 
a  brave,  well-organized  confederacy,  known  as  the  Sikhs. 
They  were  originally  a  religious  sect,  founded  about  the  end 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  by  a  Hindoo  named  Nanik.  The 
word  Sikh  means  disciple.  Under  a  powerful  chief,  ^-unjeet 
Singh,  surnamed  "  the  lion  of  the  Punjaub/'  they  had,  about 
the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  grown  into  a  powerful 
nation.  Runjeet  Singh  maintained  friendly  relations  with 
the  English,  but  after  his  death,  a  decidedly  hostile  feeling, 
especially  in  the  army,  which  numbered  seventy-three  thou- 
sand reguLir,  well-disciplined  soldiers,  manifested  itself  to- 
wards the  government  at  Calcutta.  This  was  encouraged  by 
the  fearful  disaster  in  Afghanistan,  and  the  Governor-General 
foresaw  that  war  with  the  Sikhs  was  an  impending  evil. 

Another  native  province,  that  of  Gwalior,  in  Central  Hin- 
dostan,  contained  a  party  adverse  to  the  English.  This  state 
lay  in  a  position  which  would  enable  it  to  do  much  mischief 
as  an  enemy,  in  case  of  war  with  the  Sikhs.  It  was  there- 
fore of  the  first  importance,  before  engaging  in  hostilities  with 
that  powerful  confederacy,  to  secure  Gwalior.  Under  pretext 
of  quelling  the  disorders  and  disturbances  prevailing  there,  the 
English  forces,  under  Sir  Hugh  Gough  and  Major  General 
Grey,  entered  the  country,  and  after  two  hard-fought  battles, 
won  by  the  British  troops,  the  government  of  Gwalior  solicited 
peace  A  treaty  was  concluded,  by  the  terms  of  which,  those 
persons  who  were  in  the  British  interest  were  to  be  restored 
to  power,  and  a  contingent  of  seven  regiments  of  infantry  and 
two  of  cavalry  were  to  be  furnished  and  maintained  by  the 
Gwalior  government  in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company. 
37  2E 


434  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

War  in  the  Puujaub  began  on  the  24th  of  November, 
1845.  On  that  day  two  brigades  of  Sikh  soldiery,  beUeving 
that  the  English  would  not  dare  to  face  their  formidable 
battaHons,  rushed  down  from  Lahore,  crossed  the  river  Sutlej, 
the  eastern  boundary  of  their  country,  and  burst  upon  the 
Company's  territories.  The  remainder  of  the  Sikh  army 
followed  the  evil  example,  and  crossed  the  river  on  the  12th 
of  the  following  month. 

The  Governor-General,  Lord  Hardinge,  and  Sir  Hugh 
Gough  marched  into  the  hostile  country.  At  the  end  of 
sixty  days,  after  four  pitched  battles,  fought  against  the 
bravest  of  Asia's  armies,  the  power  of  the  English  triumphed, 
and  a^  treaty  was  entered  into,  by  which  a  large  tract  of 
country  was  surrendered  to  the  British,  and  one  million  and 
a  half  pounds  paid  to  that  government  as  indemnity  for  the 
expenses  of  the  war. 

The  martial  spirit  of  the  Sikhs  was  not  yet  subdued.  Two 
years  later  there  was  a  general  uprising  in  the  Punjaub,  to 
drive  the  British  from  the  country,  and  recover  its  inde- 
pendence. Again  Lord  Gough  marched  thither,  and  again 
encountered  the  desperate  valor  of  the  Sikh  soldiery.  At 
length,  on  the  21st  of  February,  1849,  a  great  victory  gained  at 
Goojerat,  and  the  surrender  of  Mooltan,  one  of  the  strongest 
of  the  Sikh  fortresses,  decided  the  contest.  To  prevent  fur- 
ther aggression  on  the  part  of  this  warlike  nation^  the  whole 
of  the  Punjaub,  the  most  powerful  native  kingdom  in  the 
land,  was  incorporated  with  the  British  dominions.  These 
once  formidable  enemies  became  the  most  faithful  of  subjects, 
and  during  the  terrible  revolt  of  1857,  the  recently-conquered 
Punjaub  was,  under  the  wise  and  Christian  rule  of  Sir  John 
Lawrence,  a  tower  of  strength  to  the  British  empire  in  India. 
1847         "^^  ^^^^  Hardinge,  who  returned  to  England  before 

and      the  jfinal  conquest  of  the  Sikhs,  succeeded  Lord  Dal- 

*   ho.usie.     During  his  administration  occurred  another 

war  with  Birmah,  brought  on  by  a  violation  on  the  part  of 

tjie  Burmese,  of  the  treaty  of  1826.     The  result  of  the  contest 

obtained  for  the  English  the  acquisition  of  the  valuable  pro- 


INDIA.  4o5 

vince  of  Pegu,  as  well  as  the  possevssion  of  Rangoon  and  other 
important  towns  commanding  the  entrance  to  the  Irrawaddy. 
These  advantages  were  secured  to  the  English  by  the  treaty 
made  with  the  king  of  Birmah  in  June,  1853. 

By  the  year  1856  the  disorders  and  misery  which  prevailed 
in  the  native  kingdom  of  Oude,  had  risen  to  such  a  height, 
that  the  unhappy  people  begged  to  be  rescued  from  the  cruel 
tyranny  of  their  rulers,  and  placed  under  British  protection. 
As  no  redress  for  these  wrongs  could  be  obtained  from  the 
king  of  Oude,  his  dominions  were  declared  to  be  henceforth 
annexed  to  those  of  the  East  India  Company.  This  was  done 
by  a  simple  proclamation  of  the  governor-general,  issued  on 
the  14th  of  February,  1856. 

One  hundred  years  had  passed  away,  since,  in  January  of 
1757,  Clive  had  laid  the  foundations  of  the  Anglo-Indian 
Empire.  By  the  victories  of  subsequent  generals,  and  the 
wisdom  of  subsequent  rulers,  it  had  risen  to  a  proud  height 
of  prosperity  Its  territory  spread  over  an  area  of  nearly  a 
million  and  a  half  of  square  miles,  "  and  within  that  vast 
country  there  existed  not  a  chief  or  sovereign,  a  state,  a 
people  or  tribe,  which  was  not  subject  to  the  English  in 
dependence  or  alliance."  The  population  thus  controlled  is 
estimated  to  exceed  one  hundred  and  eighty  millions  of  souls. 

Among  these  were  several  milHons  of  fierce,  restless  Mus- 
sulmans, who  added  to  their  hatred  against  all  unbelievers,  a 
peculiar  enmity  towards  the  English  conquerors.  For  half  a 
century  the  prophecy  had  been  current  in  the  land,  that  the 
Christian  rule  of  the  "  Feringhee,"  as  the  natives  term  the 
English,  was  destined  by  Allah  to  endure  but  a  hundred 
years; — and  now  the  centennary  of  the  battle  of  Plassey  drew 
on.  Animated  by  a  superstitious  hope,  the  Mohammedan 
princes  set  themselves  to  accomplish,  if  possible,  the  fulfil- 
ment of  this  prophecy. 

Long  years  of  prosperity  had  induced  a  sense  of  security 
and  confidence  in  the  government  of  British  India.  The 
European  army  was  small.  The  battalion  of  Sepoys  raised 
by  Clive  in  January  of  1757,  and  officered  by  a  handful  of 


436  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

Englishmen,  had  now  grown  into  the  Bengal  Native  Army, 
numbering  upwards  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men, 
and  far  exceeding  the  European  forces  throughout  the  entire 
country.  The  troops  were  composed  of  Mussulmans  and 
Hindoos.  The  former  were  ripe  for  revolt,  and  nothing  was 
needed  for  their  purpose,  but  to  awaken  in  the  Hindoo  a 
spirit  which  would  secure  his  co-operation. 

This  was  effected  by  working  upon  the  peculiar  prejudices, 
both  religious  and  social,  of  the  Sepoy.  A  new  weapon,  the 
Enfield  rifle,  was  about  being  introduced  into  the  service,  and 
with  it  a  new  cartridge.  The  Mussulmans  spread  a  report 
that  the  new-fashioned  cartridges  were  greased  with  the  fat 
of  cows — animals  especially  sacred  in  the  eyes  of  the  worship- 
pers of  Brahma.  To  touch  or  taste  the  fat  of  animals  incurs 
defilement  tp  the  Hindoo,  and  consequent  loss  of  caste,  a 
calamity  regarded  by  the  natives  of  India  as  the  greatest 
which  could  befall  them. 

England  had  not  stood  out  as  a  Christian  government 
before  the  millions  of  her  Indian  subjects.  Fearful  of  of- 
fending their  religious  prejudices,  she  had  pandered  to  those 
prejudices,  and  withholding  from  them  the  knowledge  of  true 
Christianity,  had  left  them  to  judge  of  it  by  their  own  low 
ideas  of  religion.  Consequently,  the  native  believed  it  to  be 
a  something  which  was  contagious,  and  feared  that  by  contact 
with  Christians  and  Christian  substances,  he  might  thereby 
be  entrapped  into  Christianity. 

The  Mussulman  instigators  of  the  rebellion  therefore  as- 
serted, that  it  was  the  design  of  the  English  to  cause  the 
Sepoys  to  lose  caste  by  biting  the  cartridge,  and  having 
effected  this,  to  compel  them  by  force  to  embrace  Christianity 
Fearfully  fatal  was  the  success  of  these  appeals  to  the  cre- 
dulity, ignorance,  and  religious  fanaticism  of  the  Hindoo. 
During  the  winter,  disaffection  in  consequence  of  the  intro- 
duction of  the  new  cartridge  was  observed  in  some  of  the 
stations   in   the    neiorhborhood    of   Calcutta.     Every 

1867. 

effort  was  made  to  allay  the  unfounded  and  unwar- 
rantable  fears  of  the  Sepoys.      One  regiment,   which  had 


INDIA.  437 

openly  refused  to  receive  the  cartridges,  was  disbanded,  and 
it  was  hoped  that  this  warning  would  intimidate  others. 

When  an  example  had  thus  been  made  of  the  mutineers, 
the  manufacture  of  the  obnoxious  cartridge  was  carefully  and 
clearly  explained  by  the  commanding  officers  at  the  head  of 
the  several  native  regiments,  and  in  the  general  orders  read 
to  each  company  in  the  service,  the  most  explicit  assurances 
of  protection  to  religious  scruples  were  given.  It  was  believed 
that  disaffection  was  at  an  end,  when  suddenly,  fearfully,  like 
a  whirlwind  from  the  south,  the  storm  burst  forth  in  another 
quarter.  Anarchy  spread  its  tempest-wing  over  the  land,  and 
for  a  time  English  dominion  gave  way  before  it. 

At  Delhi,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Mohammedan  power 
in  India,  still  resided  the  descendant  of  the  Great  Mogul. 
Deprived  of  power,  but  surrounded  by  pomp  and  splendor, 
he  was  allowed  "  to  play  at  being  a  sovereign"  by  the  real 
masters  of  the  country.  On  the  ruins  of  the  old,  a  new  Delhi 
had  been  built  by  the  English.  It  was  strongly  fortified  by 
British  engineers,  contained  an  arsenal  adequate  to  the  supply 
of  the  Indian  army,  and  also  a  vast  amount  of  treasure.  In 
deference  to  Mussulman  feelings,  the  custody  of  this  import- 
ant fortress  and  station  was  confided  to  a  native  garrison, 
consisting  at  this  time  of  three  regiments  of  Bengal  Sepoys 
and  an  artillery  company. 

Forty  miles  north-east  of  Delhi  was  the  large  military 
cantonment  of  Meerut.  It  was  at  this  place  that  on  the 
evening  of  Sunday,  the  10th  of  May,  began  a  mutiny,  the 
fearful  atrocities  of  which  have  thrilled  with  horror  the  whole 
civilized  world.  It  was  the  uprising  of  fiends,  rather  than 
of  beings  endued  with  human  feelings  and  afiections.  The 
annals  of  revolt,  bloodshed,  and  massacre,  can  present  no 
parallel  to  the  deeds  perpetrated  by  these  Indian  Sepoys 
against  defenceless  women  and  children— against  friends  and 
benefactors.  "  Dark  as  the  world's  history  is  with  crime  and 
woe,  they  have  made  it  darker  still." 

After  finishing  the  dreadful  work  of  massacre  at  Meerut, 
setting  fire  to  the  European  bungalows,  and  liberating  from 
37* 


438  *     HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

the  gaol  twelve  hundred  prisoners,  the  mutineers  took  the 
road  to  Delhi.  There  they  were  joined  by  the  whole  of  the 
native  regiments,  who  added  to  the  atrocity  of  their  conduct 
by  permitting,  and  in  some  instances  joining  in  the  massacre 
of  their  officers.  Within  the  devoted  city,  every  European 
resident,  whom  the  mutinous  rabble  could  find,  was  killed. 
Plunder  accompanied  murder.  The  government  treasure  was 
seized.  The  magazine,  however,  by  the  heroism  of  Lieu- 
tenant Willoughby,  who  had  charge  of  it,  was  blown  up,  and 
it  is  estimated  that  from  fifteen  hundred  to  two  thousand  of 
the  rebels  were  involved  in  the  destruction. 

The- king  of  Delhi  was  proclaimed  emperor,  and  united  in 
this  fearful  treachery.  Helpless  women  and  children  fled  to 
him  for  protection.  He  delivered  them  to  the  mercies  of 
infuriated  Sepoys,  to  endure  at  their  hands  tortures  and 
death,  and  outrages  worse  than  death. 

When  the  tidings  of  the  outbreak  reached  the  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Eengal  army,  as  large  a  force  as  could  be 
assembled,  was  put  in  motion  for  Delhi.  By  the  8th  of  June, 
six  thousand  troops  appeared  before  the  town,  drove  the  rebels 
from  their  outposts,  and  only  awaited  the  arrival  of  a  proper 
siege-battery,  to  make  the  assault.  By  August,  the  numbers 
within  Delhi  amounted  to  thirty  thousand.  They  had  two 
hundred  guns,  with  abundant  stores  of  arms  and  ammunition, 
and  were  intrenched  within  barricaded  streets  and  buildings 
well  provided  for  defence. 

During  that  long  and  trying  summer  the  besiegers  were 
constantly  engaged  in  repelling  sorties  made  upon  them  from 
the  town.  By  the  6th  of  September  the  siege-train  and 
reinforcements  arrived  at  the  camp,  and  active  operations 
for  the  attack  at  once  commenced.  At  four  o'clock  on  the 
morning  of  the  14th,  four  columns  advanced  to  the  assault. 
The  strong  defence  of  the  Cashmere  Gate  was  blown  open. 
Through  it,  and  the  breaches  simultaneously  made  by  the 
other  columns,  the  English  with  a  cheer  and  a  rush  sprang 
into  the  town  Every  building  was  fought  for,  and  the 
storming  cf  Delhi  cost  the  lives  of  one-third  of  the  brave 


INDIA.  439 

troops  engaged  in  it.  By  the  20th,  the  headquarters  of  the 
conquerors  were  established  in  the  ancient  palace  of  the 
Great  Mogul.  The  traitor  king  had  fled,  but  he  was  over- 
taken six  miles  from  the  city  by  Lieutenant  liodson,  to  whom 
'he  surrendered  on  promise  of  his  life  being  spared.  He  was 
subsequently  tried,  and  received  sentence  of  transportation. 
In  December  of  1858,  this  last  descendant  of  the  once  power- 
ful dynasty  of  Mohammedan  sovereigns  was  conveyed  to  a 
desolate  station  in  Birmah,  some  three  hundred  miles  inland 
from  Rangoon. 

Whilst  the  transactions  already  recorded  were  taking  place 
at  Delhi,  the  whole  of  north-western  and  central  India  was  in 
revolt.  Christian  men  and  women  were  murdered,  tortured, 
and  mutilated,  on  every  road  and  in  every  village  throughout 
the  land.  Pre-eminent  in  horror  where  all  is  horrible,  stands 
forth  in  this  history  of  crime  and  blood,  the  massacre  of 
Cawnpore. 

This  station,  situated  on  the  Ganges,  in  the  upper 
province  of  Bengal,  was  garrisoned  at  the  time  of  the 
outbreak  by  General  Sir  Hugh  Wheeler,  with  a  very  small 
detachment  of  Europeans.  He  had  in  fact  only  two  hundred 
and  forty  men,  whilst  the  mutinous  troops  amounted  to  four 
thousand.  The  disaffection  which  had  manifested  itself  for 
some  weeks  previous,  broke  out  into  open  mutiny  on  the  4th 
of  June.  A  Mahratta  prince  of  wealth  and  influence,  known 
as  the  Nana  Sahib,  resided  at  Bithoor,  about  twelve  miles 
from  Cawnpore.  To  him  had  been  intrusted  the  charge  of 
the  Company's  treasure.  No  sooner  had  the  mutiny  begun, 
than  the  guard  appointed  by  him  for  its  protection,  seized  the 
treasure,  and  marching  to  Bithoor,  placed  themselves  under 
the  command  of  this  treacherous  rajah. 

Cawnpore  being  built  on  a  level  plain,  there  was  no  fort  or 
place  of  refuge  to  which  the  English  residents  might  flee. 
To  supply  this  pressing  want.  Sir  Hugh  Wheeler  selected  a 
group  of  low  buildings,  fortified  them  as  well  as  he  was  able, 
and  surrounded  the  whole  by  an  intrenchment.  Within  this 
he  collected  all  the  European  population,  amounting,  at  the 


440  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

time  of  tl'ie  outbreak,  to  some  eight  hundred  and  seventy 
persons. 

For  twenty-two  days  this  devoted  band  held  out  against 
attacks  from  every  quarter.  2sight  and  day,  twelve  pieces  of 
ordnance  played  upon  their  exposed  defences  To  add  to 
their  calamities,  the  hospital  took  fire,  from  the  red-hot  shot 
of  the  enemy,  and  forty  invahds  perished  in  the  flames.  The 
walls  of  the  buildings  were  battered  and  riddled  with  cannon 
shot  J  the  feeble  garrison  had  been  reduced  by  more  than  one 
hundred  deaths  since  they  entered  the  intrenchmentj  and  yet 
those  coward  Sepoys,  now  numbering  twelve  thousand  men, 
dared  not  attack  in  their  position  this  handful  of  defenceless 
Europeans 

' '  At  length,  on  the  26th  of  June,  Sir  Hugh  Wheeler,  seeing 
nothing  in  a  further  resistance  but  certain  death  for  the  few 
survivors  of  his  gallant  band,  surrendered  to  the  Nana  Sahib  • 
He  did  so  on  a  solemn  promise  from  the  rajah,  ratified  by  the 
oath  held  most  sacred  among  the  whole  Hindoo  race,  that  the 
lives  of  the  Europeans  and  native  converts  should  be  spared, 
and  a  safe  passage  furnished  them  down  the  Ganges  to  Alla- 
habad. On  the  27th,  the  little  party  entered  the  boats  pro- 
vided by  the  Nana  Sahib.  No  sooner  was  the  embarkation 
complete,  than,  from  guns  which  had  been  masked  near  the 
ghat,  or  landing-place,  a  deadly  fire  was  opened  upon  the 
wretched  fugitives.  Many  were  shot  down  in  the  boats, — 
others  were  drowned.  Volleys  of  musketry  poured  upon 
them  from  either  bank  of  the  river.  The  boats  were  seized 
and  brought  back.  The  men  within  them  were  all  put  to 
the  sword.  The  helpless  women  and  children  were  reserved 
for  a  fate  still  more  terrible. 

On  the  16th  July,  General  Havelock,  advancing  from 
Allahabad  for  the  relief  of  Cawnpore,  inflicted  a  severe  defeat 
upon  the  rebels.  That  night  the  English  forces  bivouacked 
before  the  town.  Each  heart  beat  high  with  hope  of  the 
rescue  they  were  to  effect  on  the  morrow.  When  day  came, 
they  entered  the  town.  With  eager  steps  they  pressed  to- 
wards the  prison-house  of  the  captive  women  and  children. 


INDIA.  441 

Alas  !  they  found  there  nothing  that  had  life ; — nothing  but 
the  traces  of  a  fearful  savage  massacre.  A  well  in  which  lay 
festering  the  mangled  bodies  of  two  hundred  and  eight  wives, 
mothers,  and  daughters, — a  row  of  little  children's  shoes,  and 
in  them  bleeding  amputated  feet; — the  gory  and  tangled 
tresses  of  woman's  hair, — these  were  the  sights  which  met 
the  gaze,  and  froze  with  horror  the  very  life-blood  of  the 
deliverers  of  Cawnpore.  One  being  alone  survived  this  mas- 
sacre, which  was  ordered  by  the  Nana  Sahib,  the  day  on 
which  he  heard  of  Ilavelock's  victorious  approach. 

One  more  instance  of  suffering  and  heroism,  and  we  will 
turn  from  these  heart-sickening  details  of  the  Indian  mutiny. 
Lucknow  was  the  capital  of  the  recently-annexed  kingdom 
of  Oude.  There,  when  rebellion  was  rife  around  him,  Sir 
Henry  Lawrence  gathered  the  European  population  within 
the  llesidency  The  Residency  of  Lucknow  was  in  itself  a 
small  town,  containing  buildings,  courts,  walls,  and  improvised 
earth-works  and  defences  of  various  kinds.  AVithin  this  en- 
closure, a  little  band  of  Europeans,  their  perils  increasing  and 
their  resources  diminishing  every  hour,  repelled  for  three  long 
months  the  assaults  of  the  fiend-like  enemy,  who  outnumbered 
them  by  thousands.  Thus  they  stood,  an  isolated  stronghold 
in  that  surging  sea  of  insurrection,  until  the  hour  of  relief 
drew  on.  The  noble  Sir  Henry  Lawrence,  whose  name  is 
one  of  the  brightest  in  the  annals  of  Christian  heroism,  was 
killed  on  the  second  day  of  the  siege,  by  the  bursting  of  a 
shell,  in  the  apartment  where  he  was  resting  after  hours  of 
se\^re  and  exhausting  labor. 

To  »raise  the  siege  of  Lucknow,  G-eneral  Havelock  began 
his  march  on  the  21st  of  July,  immediately  after  the  capture 
of  Cawnpore.  Compared  to  tfie  swarming  rebels,  for  from 
the  province  of  Oude  was  drawn  the  greater  proportion  of 
the  Bengal  Sepoys,  the  army  of  Havelock  was  but  a  handful. 
These  troops  had  to  fight  their  way  "  step  by  step  through  a 
country  whose  entire  population  was  in  arms  against  them, 
and  whose  every  town,  village,  and  house  even,  had  been 
converted  into  a  fortress,  only  to  be  reduced  by  blood  and 


442  HISTORY  OF  England. 

toil."  Disease,  engendered  by  the  pestilent  jungle,  thinned 
their  ranks.  The  bridges  over  the  swollen  rivers  and  streams 
had  been  destroyed,  and  on  the  opposite  banks  hosts  of  armed 
rebels,  strongly  intrenched,  and  well  supplied  with  artillery, 
opposed  their  progress. 

Within  thirty-seven  days,  Havelock  had  fought  and  won 
ten  pitched  battles,  against  overwhelming  numbers ;  but,  to 
quote  the  simple  statement  of  one  of  his  officers,  *'We  found 
that  it  was  impossible  for  us  to  proceed  on  to  Lucknow,  on 
account  of  our  army  being  so  small;  for  though  we  are  a 
brave  little  band,  and  could  easily  fight  our  way  thither,  yet 
we  could  not  compel  them  to  raise  the  siege  when  we  got 
there,  as  we  should  have  no  men  to  do  it  with." 

On  the  17tli  of  September,  General  Havelock's  little  army 
of  seven  hundred  men  was  reinforced  by  General  Sir  James 
Outram,  and  the  united  forces,  twenty-five  hundred  strong, 
pushed  on  for  the  relief  of  the  beleaguered  town.  On  the 
evening  of  the  25th,  they  reached  Lucknow,  the  Residency 
was  relieved,  and  for  a  moment  the  waves  of  rebellion  were 
parted.  But  they  quickly  closed  in  again.  The  city  was 
still  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  Nearly  one-third  of  Have- 
lock's army  had  been  killed.  The  rescuers  had  in  their  turn 
become  the  besieged,  and  now  began  a  second  defence,  as 
full  of  patient  endurance  and  heroism  as  the  former  one  had 
been. 

The  second  relief  of  Lucknow  was  accomplished  by  Sir 
Colin  Campbell,  on  the  afternoon  of  the  17  th  of  November. 
A  few  days  later,  the  noble  Christian  soldier,  Sir  Henry 
Havelock,  overcome  by  the  severe  and  protracted  exertions 
of  the  last  few  months,  closed  his  victorious  career. 

As  it  was  impossible  to  hold  with  a  small  force  a  city 
swarming  with  fifty  thousand  rebels,  the  commander-in-chief 
determined  to  withdraw  every  European  resident.  The  women 
and  children,  that  remnant  who  had  outlived  the  horrors  of 
two  sieges,  were  sent  to  Cawnpore,  and  finally  to  Calcutta, 
where  early  in  the  following  year  they  were  received  with 
feelings   of    the   profoundcst   emotion,    by    the   entire    city. 


INDIA.  443 

Troops  under  G-eneral  Outram  were  left  in  a  fortified  position 
known  as  the  Alumbagh,  about  four  miles  from  Lucknow. 
In  March  of  1858,  Lucknow  was  finally  captured  by  Sir  Colin 
Campbell,  and  the  supremacy  of  the  English  firmly  re-estab- 
lished in  Oude.  By  the  summer  of  that  year,  the  strength 
of  the  rebellion  in  every  province  had  been  broken.  A 
writer,  alluding  to  the  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  Plassey,  on 
the  23d  of  June,  1858,  says :  "  India  is  ours  to-day, — ay, 
more  firmly  and  more  enduringly  ours  than  ever  it  was  since 
its  fetters  were  forged  on  the  plains  of  Plassey.'' 

.  With  the  suppression  of  the  mutiny  came  a  great  political 
change — the  extinction  of  the  rule  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany By  a  legislative  and  royal  act  passed  on  the  2d  of 
August,  1858,  the  government  of  the  English  possessions  in 
India  was  transferred  to  the  crown. 

''  The  Company  of  Merchant  Adventurers  trading  to  the 
East  Indies,"  had  founded  there  a  magnificent  empire.  Wher- 
ever its  rule  extended,  native  anarchy  and  misery  fled  before 
it,  and  protection  for  life  and  property  took  their  place.  The 
East  India  Company  had  established  railways,  roads,  canals, 
telegraphs,  colleges,  and  village  schools  throughout  India. 
By  them  not  only  had  the  blessings  of  civilization  been  con- 
ferred upon  the  land,  but  greater,  nobler  things  had  been 
achieved — triumphs  over  which  both  Christianity  and  hu- 
manity rejoice. 

Between  the  years  1831-1835,  during  the  administration 
of  Sir  William  Bentinck,  the  horrible  crime  of  Thuggee  was 
detected  and  prevented.  The  Thugs  were  a  tribe  of  heredi- 
tary thieves  and  murderers,  who,  under  the  protection,  as  they 
claimed,  and  in  order  to  propitiate  a  heathen  goddess,  roved 
through  the  land  to  rob  and  murder  the  unwary  traveller. 
With  a  strip  of  cloth  or  ai^  unfolded  turban  they  strangled 
the  victim  of  this  horrid  sacrifice.  So  great  was  their  skill 
and  dexterity  in  eluding  detection,  that,  although  hundreds 
and  thousands  porished  yearly  under  their  hands,  none  knew 
where  or  how  the  crime  had  been  committed.     After  more 


444  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

than  two  thousand  Thugs  had  been  seized,  and  executed,  or 
otherwise  punished,  the  confederacy  was  entirely  broken  up. 

By  the  humane  efforts  of  the  Company,  the  crime  of  in- 
fanticide had  been  suppressed.  Suttee,  or  the  burning  of  the 
widow  on  the  funeral  pile  of  a  deceased  husband,  had  been 
abolished,  and  the  cruel,  merciless  sacrifices  before  the  car 
of  the  demon  idol  of  Juggernaut,  had  been  abandoned.  Such 
blessings  bestowed  by  the  East  India  Company  upon  its  sub- 
jects, may  well  constitute  her  proudest  monument  as  she 
points  to  the  history  of  the  past. 

Questions. — Relate  the  circumstances  and  motives  which  led  to 
the  war  with  Sinde. — State  the  result  of  this  war. — Describe  the 
eflfect  of  the  English  rule. — Give  the  history  of  the  Sikh  confede- 
racy.— Relate  the  circumstances  and  motives  which  led  to  a  war 
with  Gwalior. — State  the  result  of  this  war. — What  action  precipi- 
tated war  with  the  Sikhs? — Mention  the  results  of  the  first  cam- 
paign.— How  was  war  renewed? — State  the  final  result  of  the  con- 
test,— Relate  the  brief  account  of  the  second  Burmese  war. 

What  circumstances  induced  the  annexation  of  Oude  ? — What  was 
the  extent  of  the  English  dominion  in  India? — By  what  feelings  was 
the  Mussulman  population  animated  ? — What  was  the  condition  of 
the  European  force  in  India  in  1857? — Where  did  disaffection  first 
manifest  itself? — How  was  it  treated? — Describe  the  position  of 
Delhi. — When  and  where  did  the  mutiny  break  out? — Describe  the 
conduct  of  the  mutineers  at  Delhi. — Describe  the  siege  and  capture 
of  that  city. — Describe  the  state  of  other  parts  of  the  country. 

Give  the  history  of  the  transactions  at  Cawnpore  during  June  and 
July,  1857. — Relate  the  account  given  of  the  defence  and  relief  of 
Lucknow. — What  was  the  position  of  the  English  in  the  summer  of 
1858? — What  great  political  change  followed  the  mutiny? — What 
benefits  were  conferred  upon  India  by  the  rule  of  the  East  India 
Company  ? 


THE    ENGLISH    IN    CHINA.  445 


/^ 


.  CHAPTER  LXX.     J 

THE   ENGLISH   IN    CHINA. 

/        EMBASSIES    TO    CHINA — COMMERCIAL    RELATIONS — WAR    OP    1842. 

As  early  as  the  year  1792,  an  attempt  was  made  by  Eng- 
land to  induce  the  Chinese  to  abandon  the  exclusive  policy 
which  prohibited  foreigners  access  to  that  empire. 

Lord  Macartney  was  sent  with  an  embassy  for  that  purpose, 
but  was  unable  to  effect  any  change  in  the  opinions  of  tho 
Chinese,  who  doubtless  were  aware  of  the  results  of  British 
influence  in  Hindostan,  and  deprecated  its  admission  into  the 
Celestial  Empire.  Lord  Macartney  was  forced  to  leave  Pekiu 
in  1793. 

In  1816,  Lord  Amherst  went  to  China  with  the  same 
object  in  view,  but  having  given  offence  to  the  emperor,  in 
the  course  of  his  residence  there,  he  failed  as  signally  as  Lord 
Macartney  had  done. 

The  Chinese  were  willing  to  carry  on  commercial  trans- 
actions, but  desired  their  relations  with  foreigners  to  be  con- 
fined solely  to  those  of  trade.  The  East  India  Company, 
yielding  to  these  views,  carried  on  for  many  years  a  profitable 
commercial  intercourse  with  that  country.  By  caution,  con- 
cessions, and  bribes,  the  servants  of  the  Company  either 
avoided  or  quickly  healed  the  disputes  to  which  they  were 
occasionally  liable  from  the  jealousy  this  singular  people 
entertain  towards  foreigners.  This  policy,  however,  had 
unhappily  given  to  the  Chinese  the  impression  that  the 
English  were  merely  a  money-loving  people,  and  would  sub- 
mit to  any  indignity,  rather  than  lose  the  profits  arising  from 
their  trade  with  the  Celestial  Empire. 

In  the  year  1833  an  act  was  passed  in  the  British  parlia- 
ment, throwing  open  the  China  trade  to  all  English  merchants. 
A  commissioner  was  to  superintend  tbeir  commercial  interests 
88 


446  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND, 

in  that  country.  Lord  Napier  was  the  first  person  sent  out 
for  that  purpose.  The  Chinese  jealousy  of  foreigners  was 
thoroughly  roused  by  theie  proceedings.  They  refused  Lord 
Napier  entrance  into  Canton,  and  threatened  to  stop  all 
trade  with  the  English.  Lord  Napier  ordered  two  vessels  to 
ascend  the  river  to  Whampoa,  his  residence  outside  of  Canton, 
for  the  protection  of  British  merchant  vessels  there.  When 
the  two  ships,  the  "Andromache"  and  "  Imogen  e,"  irfobe- 
dience  to  this  order,  attempted  to  pass  the  Bocca  Tigris,  one 
of  the  principal  defences  on  the  river  below  Canton,  they 
received  a  fire  from  the  Chinese.  It  inflicted  but  little 
injury,  and  having  demolished  the  enemy's  batteries,  the 
two  vessels  proceeded  to  Whampoa.  The  Chinese  viceroy 
then  consented  to  reopen  the  trade,  provided  the  British 
commissioner  would  give  up  his  residence  at  Whampoa,  and 
retire  to  Macao. 

During  the  years  1835-1836,  there  was  Ho  hostile  colli- 
sion between  the  two  nations.  The  English  traders  during 
that  period,  however,  were  engaged  in  an  unjust  and  illegal 
trafiic,  which  led  to  the  most  disastrous  results.  In  defiance 
of  severe  imperial  edicts,  large  quantities  of  opium  were 
smuggled  by  the  English  into  China.  This  intoxicating 
drug,  sought  with  such  passionate  avidity  by  the  lower  classes 
of  the  Chinese  population,  produced  the  most  injurious  and 
demorahzing  effects.  Rigid  edicts  issued  by  the  emperor, 
forbade  the  importation  of  an  article  so  hurtful  to  the  health 
and  morals  of  his  subjects.  But  English  traders,  because  the 
trafiic  in  opium  was  a  source  of  enormous  profit,  persisted  in 
smuggling  this  drug  into  the  country ;  nor  did  the  British 
government  take  any  measures  to  prevent  this  gross  and  open 
violation  of  Chinese  law.  In  January,  1839,  a  Chinese  man- 
darin named  Lin  came  to  Canton,  and  at  once  took  vigorous 
measures  for  putting  a  stop  to  this  unlawful  trafiic.  He 
demanded  that  all  the  opium  in  the  factories  should  be  given 
up,  and  a  bond  entered  into  by  the  English  merchants,  pro- 
mising to  abandon  for  the  future  any  attempt  to  bring  opium 
into  the  country.     To  enforce  his  demands,  Lin   caused  all 


THE    ENGLISH    IN    CHINA.  447 

the  factories  containing  this  obnoxious  drug  to  be  blockaded. 
Thus  pressed,  the  English  delivered  up  the  opium,  but  evaded 
signing  the  bond.  The  feeUngs  of  both  parties,  English  mer- 
chants and  Chinese  officials,  had  now  become  greatly  exaspe- 
rated, and  various  circumstances  tended  to  increase  this. 

In  August  an  affray  occurred  between  some '  Chinese  vil- 
lagers and  English  sailors,  in  which  one  of  the  former  was 
killed  The  imperial  government  demanded  the  surrender 
of  the  murderer,  which  was  refused  The  Chinese  authorities 
then  forbade  their  people  to  furnish  supplies  to  the  British, 
and  moreover  began  a  series  of  hostile  acts  which  led  in  the 
course  of  a  few  months  to  actual  war.  Ships  and  land  forces 
were  ordered  to  the  Chinese  waters. 

.An  assault  headed  by  Sir  Henry  Gough  was  made 
on  Canton,  the  protecting  forts  speedily  carried,  and 
the  city  itself  only  saved  by  the  submission  of  the  inhabitants. 
In  the  north  the  important  towns  of  Amoy,  Chinghae,  Ningpo, 
and  the  valuable  island  of  Chusan,  fell  before  their  victorious 
arms.  The  great  blow  which  terminated  the  war  was  struck 
upon  the  Yang-tse-kiang.  This  fine  river,  flowing  through  the 
empire  from  west  to  east,  intersects,  at  the  strongly-fortified 
town  of  Chin-Kiang-Foo,  the  Grand  Imperial  Canal.  This 
canal,  running  from  north  to  south,  seven  hundred  miles, 
connects  the  capital  of  the  Celestial  Empire  with  the  southern 
provinces  The  mouths  of  the  Yang-tse-kiang,  or  Blue  Biver, 
were  strongly  defended,  and  batteries  containing  no  less  than 
two  hundred  and  fifty-three  guns,  frowned  down  upon  the 
invading  force.  So  satisfied  were  the  Chinese  of  the  strength 
of  these  defences,  that  they  not  only  permitted,  but  seemed 
to  exult  in  the  close  inspection  which  the  British  made  of 
them,  preparatory  to  opening  the  attack.  This  exultation 
was  changed  into  astonishment  aj^d  fear,  when,  at  the  end  of 
two  days,  all  their  defences  were  stormed  and  carried,  three 
hundred  and  sixty-four  pieces  of  cannon  captured,  and  the 
ships  of  the  barbarians  anchored  before  the  great  city  of 
Shanghai.  The  Chinese  government  endeavored  to  stop  the 
progress  of  the  English,  by  offering  to  enter  into  treaty  with 


448  HISTORY   OP   ENGLAND. 

them.  But  the  latter,  well  aware  that  this  was  but  an  artifice 
to  gain  time  and  renewed  strength  for  further  resistance,  were 
not  deterred  by  it  from  prosecuting  their  successes.  They 
sailed  up  the  river  to  Chin-Kiang-Foo.  In  this  city  the 
garrison  was  mainly  composed  of  Tartars,  a  far  braver  race 
of  soldiers  than  the  natives  of  southern  China.  Under  an 
intrepid  chief,  Haeling,  they  obstinately  defended  their  city. 
It  was  attacked  by  three  separate  columns  of  the  British 
at  as  many  different  points,  and  was  won,  after  a  hard 
day's  fight,  on  the  21st  July,  1842.  This  victory,  enabhng 
the  British  to  cut  off  from  the  imperial  capital,  Pekin,  all 
supplies  of  grain,  for  which  it  was  dependent  on  the  southern 
provinces,  decided  the  result  of  the  war.  The  British  fleet 
advanced  up  the.  river  to  the  large  city  of  Nankin,^  once  the 
great  capital  of  the  empire.  This  city  they  were  preparing  to 
storm,  when  hostilities  were  suspended  by  the  intelligence 
that  a  treaty  of  peace  was  negotiating  between  the  English 
commissioner,  Sir  H.  Pottinger,  and  the  Chinese  government. 
By  this  treaty,  which  was  signed  on  the  29th  of  August,  the 
Chinese  agreed  to  pay  a  large  sum  of  money  to  the  British 
government,  to  cede  the  island  of  Hong-Kong  for  ever  into 
the  hands  of  the  same  power,  and  to  open  five  ports,  namely, 
Canton,  Amoy,  Shanghai,  Foo-Choo,  and  Ningpo,  to  English 
merchants. 

Questions. — When  was  Lord  Macartney  sent  to  China? — What 
was  the  object  of  his  mission? — Mention  its  result. — Give  the  ac- 
count of  Lord  Amherst's  mission. — What  views  were  held  by  the 
Chinese  regarding  intercourse  with  foreigners  ? — Describe  the  policy 
of  the  East  India  Company. — What  changes  took  place  in  the  year 
1833  ? — Relate  the  causes  of  the  war  with  China. — Mention  the  cir- 
cumstances which  precipitated  hostilities. — Describe  the  victorious 
career  of  the  British  in  this  war^j— When  were  hostilities  terminated  ? 
— Mention  the  provisions  of  the  treaty. 


AUSTRALIA — NEW    ZEALAND — CAPE   COLONY.  449 


CHAPTER  LXXI. 

AUSTRALIA — NEW   ZEALAND — CAPE   COLONY. 

The  vast  island-continent  to  which  Dutch  navigators  gave 
the  name  of  New  Holland,  has  received  from  the  English  the 
more  appropriate  designation  of  AustraHa.  The  colonies  of 
New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  and  South  Australia,  occupy  the 
south-eastern  part  of  the  island.  The  Swan  River  Settlement 
is  in  western  Australia.  "  These  colonies  have  an  area  many 
times  the  size  of  the  British  Islands." 

When  the  independence  of  the  United  States  had  deprived 
England  of  her  American  colonies,  the  proposition  was  made 
to  establish  a  penal  settlement  at  Botany  Bay,  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  Australia,  or  New  Holland,  as  the  country  was  then 
called.  This  colony  was  founded  in  the  year  1788,  not  at 
Botany  Bay  (although  that  name  was  for  many  years  applied 
to  it),  but  twelve  miles  distant,  on  the  shores  of  Sidney  Cove. 
Until  the  year  1821,  this  colony,  known  as  New  South  Wales, 
was  only  a  penal  settlement.  By  convict  pioneers  the  forests 
were  cleared,  roads  and  bridges  constructed,  and  all  the 
preliminary  hard  work  of  colonization  effected. 

In  the  year  1820  free  immigration  to  Australia  was  en- 
couraged, and  a  few  years  later,  colonfsts  were  pressing 
towards  the  interior,  and  settling  down  upon  fertile  lands,  in 
the  midst  of  their  fast-multiplying  herds  and  flocks.  The 
twenty-four  Merino  sheep,  purchased  by  rare  favor  from  the 
flocks  of  George  III.,  and  introduced  into  Australia  in  1803, 
had  rapidly  increased.  The  wool  sent  from  this  colony  to  the 
London  market,  vied  with  the  finest  fleeces  of  Spain  and 
Saxony. 

The  province  now  known  as  Victoria  was  founded  in  1835, 

on  the  site  of  its  present  capital,  Melbourne.     By  the  year 

1851  it  had  grown  in  wealth  and  prosperity,  and  at  that  dat« 

was  erected  into  a  separate  colony.     South  Australia  was  first 

38  *  2  F 


450  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

settled  in  the  year  1836.  This  colony,  composed  of  free 
settlers,  found  -many  difficulties  to  contend  with  during  its 
early  history.  These  have  been  gradually  overcome,  and 
now,  the  rich  copper-mines  and  fine  wheat-fields  of  South 
Australia  bid  fair  to  give  it  a  high  rank  among  the  prosperous 
settlements  of  this  region 

Australia  is  no  longer  shunned  as  the  land  of  the  felon. 
Free  and  industrious  immigrants  have  opened  up  its  rich 
resources  as  a  wheat  and  wool  producing  country.  The 
forests  of  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria  have  been  converted 
into  corn-fields,  and  their  mountains  and  valleys  afford  pas- 
turage to  vast  flocks  and  herds. 

In  the  year  1851,  gold  was  discovered  at  Bathurst,  in  New 
South  Wales,  and  at  Ballarat  and  Mount  Alexander,  in  the 
colony  of  Victoria.  For  a  time  all  industrial  pursuits  were 
abandoned,  and  one  universal  mania  for  gold  digging  possessed 
the  entire  population.  About  the  time  of  the  gold  discoveries, 
England  made  Van  Diemen's  Land,  now  Tasmania,  the  penal 
colony.  When  the  fame  of  the  gold-fields  was  attracting 
adventurers  from  every  class  of  society,  many  of  the  convicts 
contrived  to  escape  from  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  under  the 
dreaded  name  of  bush-rangers,  rendered  themselves,  by  their 
deeds  of  murder  and  robbery,  the  terror  of  the  country. 

The  government  of  the  two  gold  colonies  took  active  mea- 
sures to  put  down  these  marauders.  The  constabulary  forces 
were  increased,  antl  their  salaries  raised.  The  mihtary  were 
called  into  requisition,  and  every  effort  made  to  prevent  the 
demoralizing  effects  of  a  sudden  revolution  upon  a  community 
hitherto  devoted  to  pastoral  pursuits.  The  success  of  these 
measures  may  be  inferred  from  the  report  of  an  American 
traveller  who  visited  the  gold-fields  of  Ballarat  in  1856.  He 
states  that  the  roads,  even  through  unpeopled  districts,  are 
rendered  safe  by  a  patrol  of  mounted  police.  The  members 
of  this  corps  are  described  as  large,  fine-looking  men,  mounted 
on  noble  horses,  and  armed  with  a  carbine  and  dragoon  sword. 
*'The  existence  of  this  force,"  it  is  further  stated,  "has  spared 
Australia  the  horrors  of  lynch  law ;  and   prevented  a  great 


AUSTRALIA — NEW    ZEALAND — CAPE   COLONY.  451 

deal  of  bloodshed,  by  allowing  no  weapons  to  be  carried." 
Even  at  the  diggings  robbery  is  unknown,  "  although  many 
diggers  keep  large  quantities  of  gold  in  their  tents." 

Forty  years  ago  Australia  was  only  known  as  Botany  Bay, 
the  country  of  the  convict  and  the  outcast.  Now  the  island 
contains  several  different  colonies,  and  is  the  home  of  many 
thousand  British  subjects.  To  these  (as  to  all  her  depend- 
encies save  India)  Grreat  Britain  has  accorded  the  right  of 
self-government  under  free  representative  assemblies,  and 
Australia  bids  fair  to  take  her  place  with  Europe,  Asia, 
Africa,  and  America,  as  the  fifth  grand  political  division 
of  the  earth. 

New  Zealand  received  its  first  European  settlement  from 
the  deserters  of  whale  ships,  and  a  little  band  of  missionaries 
from  Australia.  As  early  as  the  year  1814,  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Marsden,  the  colonial  chaplain  of  New  South  Wales,  estab- 
lished in  these  islands  a  mission  station  of  the  English  church. 
This  example  was  followed  by  the  Wesleyans  in  1821.  The 
labors  of  the  missionaries  have  met  with  a  success  unparalleled 
in  the  history  of  modern  times.  New  Zealand,  where  canni- 
balism existed,  and  where  slavery,  polygamy.^  infanticide,  and 
all  the  abominations  of  heathenism  prevailed,  has  become,  in 
less  than  forty  years,  a  civilized  and  Christian  country. 

When  the  first  direct  colonization  from  Great  Britain  took 
place  in  New  Zealand,  which  was  not  until  the  end  of  1839, 
the  emigrants  found  no  fewer  than  twelve  stations  planted  in 
that  distant  land  by  the  Church  Missionary  Society.  Two 
years  later,  many  of  the  native  chiefs  agreed  to  acknowledge 
the  supremacy  of  the  English  queen;  "giving  up,"  as  they 
happily  expressed  it,  "the  shadow  of  the  land,  but  retaining 
the  substance."  British  sovereignty  over  the  isles  of  New 
Zealand  was  proclaimed  by  the  lieutenant-governor,  Capiain 
Hobson,  on  the  21st  of  May,  1840. 

At  present,  the  colonial  population  is  small,  but  the  fine 
and  healthful  climate  of  these  islands,  and  the  high-toned 
moral  and  social  f^haracter  of  the  colonists  there,  will,  in  time, 


452  HISTORY   OF   ENGLAND. 

no  doubt  render  New  Zealand  one  of  the  most  favored  of 
England's  colonial  dependencies. 

Cape  Colony,  in  South  Africa,  formerly  in  possession  of 
the  Dutch,  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  in  1815.  The  first 
English  settlement  established  there  was  made  in  the  year 
1820,  by  a  body  of  five  thousand  Scotch  emigrants.  The 
colonies  at  the  Cape  have  been  greatly  harassed  at  difiierent 
periods,  by  wars  with  the  fierce  Cafiir  tribes,  and  by  the 
disaiFection  of  the  Boors,  as  the  descendants  of  the  old  Dutch 
settlers  are  called. 

At  the  close  of  the  last  campaign  against  the  Caffirs  in 
1852,  these  hostile  tribes  were  subdued.  By  the  treaty  of 
peace  which  followed,  the  English  have  gained  a  defensive 
frontier,  which  has  never  since  been  disturbed. 

The  noble  labors  of  the  Scotch  missionary  and  explorer, 
Dr.  Livingstone,  and  of  other  men  of  like-minded  beneficence, 
are  fast  opening  up  the  commercial  and  industrial  resources 
of  the  vast  unexplored  territory  north  of  this  now  extended 
colony.  The  exertions  of  the  intelligent  Christian  missionary, 
at  Cape  Colony,  at  Cape  Coast  Castle,  and  at  Sierra  Leone, 
make  these  colonies  of  Glreat  Britain  centres  from  which  we 
may  hope  to  see  the  light  of  Christianity  and  civilization 
spread  abroad  over  the  benighted  land  of  Africa. 

Questions. — Give  the  names  of  the  English  colonies  in  Australia. — 
Where  and  with  what  object  was  the  earliest  settlement  founded  ? — 
Describe  the  labors  of  the  early  settlers. — Describe  the  condition 
of  New  South  Wales  after  free  immigration  had  taken  place. — When 
and  where  was  Victoria  settled? — What  of  the  condition  of  the 
colonies  at  this  time? — When  and  where  was  gold  discovered? — 
Describe  the  effect  of  these  discoveries  upon  the  condition  of  the 
colonies.— What  was  the  state  of  things  in  1856?— By  whom  was 
New  Zealand  settled  ?— Give  a  sketch  of  its  history.— Relate  what  is 
told  of  the  colony  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 


CANADA.  453 

CHAPTER  LXXII 

CANADA. 

EARLY    HISTORY  —  POLITICAL     DISCONTENTS  —  REBELLION  —  SUBSEQUENT 
HISTORY — CONCLUSION. 

The  British  possessions  in  America,  including  New  Bruns- 
wick, Nova  Scotia,  &c.,  and  thence  extending  north  from  the 
river  St.  Lawrence  and  the  great  lakes  to  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
comprise  a  vast  area  of  territory.  The  greater  part  of  it  is 
still  the  abode  of  Indian  tribes.  Here  and  there  among  them 
is  an  English  fort  or  trading  settlement.  These  settlements, 
which  number  about  a  hundred,  in  what  is  called  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  Territory,  are  occupied  by  fur-hunters,  or  men 
engaged  in  trading  with  the  Indians  for  their  valuable  com- 
modities. 

On  the  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  borders  of  the 
Great  Lakes,  lies  the  large  and  populous  province  of  Canada. 
This  country,  discovered  and  colonized  by  the  French,  came 
into  possession  of  the  British  in  the  year  1763.  It  had  then 
a  population  of  seventy  thousand,  nearly  all  of  whom  were 
French 

For  many  years  these  people  were  allowed  to  retain  the 
customs  and  laws  which  they  had  as  colonists  of  France. 
In  the  year  1791  Canada  was  divided  into  two  provinces ; 
one  remaining  almost  exclusively  French,  whilst  the  other 
was  assigned  more  particularly  to  British  residents.  After 
the  peace  of  1815,  when  emigration  from  England  increased, 
the  French  in  the  lower  province  became  alarmed  lest  their 
French  customs  and  laws  should  be  superseded  by  the  influx 
of  English  ideas,  views,  and  manners  of  this  new  population. 
•  Nor  was  this  new  English  emigration  better  received  in  the 
upper  province.  There  the  old  Tory  residents  wanted  to  keep 
the  rule  in  their  own  hands.  The  government  since  1791  had 
been  administered  by  a  council  appointed  by  the  crown,  the 


454  HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND. 

members  of  which  held  office  for  life ;  and  an  assembly  elected 

by  the  inhabitants  under  certain  property  qualifications.     On 

the  increase  of  emigration  the  council  became  jealous  of  the 

assembly,  and   these  in   turn  felt  overawed  by  the 
1835.*  .  . 

great  power  of  the  upper  house,  and  strife  ensued. 

In  the  lower  province,  the  French  population,  instigated 
by  the  radical  party  in  England,  demanded  political  changes 
which  should  throw  a  greater  amount  of  power  into  the  hands 
of  the  people.  This  alteration  in  the  Canadian  constitution 
was  refused  by  the  English  government,  and  an  insurrection 
followed.  It  was  suppressed  in  the  lower  province,  without 
great  loss  of  life  on  either  side,  by  the  active  measures  of  the 
governor,  in  concert  with  the  military.  In  the  upper  pro- 
vince, the  English  population  generally  were  loyal,  but  there 
was  a  party  of  radicals  there,  who,  aided  by  American  sympa- 
thizers, promoted  insurrection.  The  rebels  occupied  Navy 
Island  in  the  Niagara  River,  about  two  miles  above  the  falls. 
They  were  supplied  with  ammunition  and  provisions  by  a 
little  steamer,  the  "■  Caroline,"  which  plied  between  this 
island  and  the  American  shore.  Colonel  McNab,  the  com- 
mander of  the  British  militia,  gave  orders  to  destroy  this 
vessel.  She  was  consequently  boarded  by  a  strong  body  of 
militia,  who  drove  away  the  armed  force  which  guarded  her, 
carried  the  vessel,  and  after  removing  the  crew,  sent  her 
drifting  in  flames  over  the  edge  of  the  mighty  cataract. 

When  the  news  of  these  outbreaks  reached  England,  a 
military  force  was  sent  over,  and  Lord  Durham  appointed 
governor  of  the  lower  province,  with  very  ample  powers  for 
remodelling  the  government.  On  arriving  in  Canada,  Lord 
Durham  found  a  large  number  of  prisoners  taken  in  the  late 
insurrections  awaiting  trial.  Knowing  that  in  the  excited 
Btate  of  public  feeling,  no  juries  fairly  summoned  could  be 
found  to  convict  them,  the  governor  used  his  discretionary 
powers  in  passing  an  ordinance,  by  which  the  most  guilty  of 
the  prisoners  were  to  be  sent  to  Bermuda,  and  there  await  (he 
queen's  pleasure.  Influenced  partly  by  political  opposition, 
the  English  government  refused  to  sanction  this  ordinance. 


CANADA.  455 

and  Lord  Durham  immediately  resigned  his  oflSee.  The 
Bermuda  prisoners  returned,  and,  in  the  autumn  of 
1838,  stirred  up  another  rebellion.  The  promptness 
and  vigor  with  which  .military  force  was  employed  at  the 
outset,  entirely  put  down  this  insurrection  in  both  provinces 
in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks.  The  firmness  and  moderation 
with  which  the  insurgents  were  subsequently  treated,  did 
honor  to  the  British  government,  whilst  it  evinced  a  great 
advance  in  humanity  since  the  days  of  the  Highland  rebel- 
lions, when  streams  of  blood  were  poured  upon  the  scaffold. 

Lord  Sydenham,  the  successor  of  Lord  Durham,  entered 

into  the  wise  and  beneficent  plans  of  his  predecessor  for  the 

government  of  Canada.     The  two  provinces  were  united  in 

one,  and  under  srood  rule  and  more  liberal  institutions 

1841.  >  fo  . 

the  country  has  not  only  remained  tranquil,  but  has 
exhibited  a  growth  in  prosperity  almost  unparalleled. 

Besides  the  greater  dependencies  above  enumerated,  there 
are  many  others.  Indeed,  the  power  of  G-reat  Britain  "  has," 
to  use  the  language  of  an  eminent  American  statesman, 
"  dotted  over  the  surface  of  the  whole  globe  with  her  posses- 
sions and  military  posts, — whose  morning  drum-beat,  following 
the  sun,  and  keeping  company  with  the  hours,  circles  the 
earth  with  one  continuous  and  unbroken  strain  of  the  martial 
airs  of  England." 

Questions. -T-Describe  the  condition  of  a  large  portion  of  British 
America.— Where  is  the  province  of  Canada  situated? — By  whom 
was  it  first  settled  ? — Describe  its  condition  on  becoming  an  English 
colony.— ^State  the  origin  of  political  discontents  in  the  two  pro- 
vinces.— Give  an  account  of  the  insurrections  in  Canada. — Describe 
the  subsequent  condition  of  Canada. — Repeat  the  concluding  remarks 
respecting  the  extent  of  England's  colonial  possessiona. 


456 


HISTORY    OP   ENGLAND. 


ENGLISH  SOVEREIGNS  FROM  THE  NORMAN  CONQUEST. 


r 

Name. 

Surname. 

Began 

to 
Reign. 

Number 

of 
Year*. 

Uth  Century. 

William  I 

William  II 

12th  Century. 

Henry  I 

Stephen  

The  Conqueror     .     .     . 
Rufus 

Beauclerc    .     .     .     .     . 

1066 
1087 

1100 
1135 
1164 
1189 

1199 
1216 
1272 

1307 
1327 
1377 

1399 

1413 

1422 

1461 

1483  - 

1483 

1485 

1509 
1547 
1553 
1658 

•1603 
1625 
1649 
1660* 
1685 
1688 

1702 
1714 
1727 
1760 

1820 
1830 
1837 

'     21 
13 

35 
19 
35 
10 

16 
56 
35 

20 
60 
22 

U 

9 

39 

22 

2 

24 

38 
6 
6 

45 

22 
24 

9 
25 

3 
14 

12 
13 
33 
60 

10 

7 

Henry  II 

Richard  I 

13th  Century. 

John 

Henry  III  ...    . 

Plantagenet     .... 
Cceur-de-Lion .     .     .     . 

Lackland 

Edward  I 

Uth  Century. 
Edward  II 

Edward  III 

Richard  II 

15th  Century. 

Henry  IV 

Henry  V 

of  Bordeaux    .... 
of  Lancaster    .... 

Henry  VI 

Edward  IV 

Edward  V 

of  York 

Richard  III 

Henry  VII 

16th  Century. 
Henry  VIII 

of  Gloucester  .... 
Tudor 

Edavard  VI.     .    .    . 

Mary 

Elizabeth 

17  th  Century. 
James  I 

Stuart 

Cromwell 



Charles  II 

....*.... 

William  III 

18th  Century. 
Anne   .              ... 

of  Orange 

George  I 

George  II 

of  Hanover 

George  III 

19th  Century. 
George  IV       .    . 

William  IV 

Victoria      

Guelph 

RETURN   EDUCATION -PSYCHOLOGY  LIBRARY 
TOi— #^  2600  Tolman  Hall  642-4209 


LOAN  PERIOD  1 
V  MONTH 


QUARTEH  LOAF 


WO  laiPHONE  renewal; 


ALL  BOOKS  MAY-etHRECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 

2-  hour  books  must  be  renewed  in  person 
.  ^^  ^  Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed 


nilADTCD  .nP."^  ^^  STAMPED  BELOW 

QUARTER  LOAN  Ul 

t: 

'JUN  2  5  1982 

SUBJECT  TO  RECAI 

i 

' 

" 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  BERKELEY 
FORM  NO.  DDIO,  5m,  3/80  BERKELEY,  CA  94720 

v^a.ilrTif  tr'j^i    I   II ■■   I -..._■ 


-J 


,YB  30274 


790487  ^f\^^ 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


